IR Induces RAC1 Expression and EMT in Lung Cancer Cells.

Consistent with the in vitro results, RAC1 significantly enhanced tumor xenograft growth treated with IR (XREF_FIG).

The western blot results showed that IR could significantly increase the PI3K, p-AKT, AKT, and RAC1, whereas the LY294002 reversed this effect in both A549 and PC9 cells (XREF_FIG).

Furthermore, IR induced RAC1 expression and activity via the activation of PI3K and AKT signaling pathway, and then enhancing cell proliferation, survival, migration and metastasis and increasing levels of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers, which facilitated the cell survival and invasive phenotypes.

In this study, we also found that overexpression of Rac1 significantly promoted the migration and invasion, and radioresistance of lung cancer cells, whereas the knockdown of Rac1 markedly inhibited these capabilities of lung cancer cells in vivo and in vitro.

In this article, we uncovered inhibition of RAC1 in lung cancer cells is sufficient to abrogate the IR induced and RAC1 mediated tumor migration and invasion, as evidenced by cell proliferation, colony formation, and Transwell assay.

RAC1 Promotes Radioresistance, Invasion and Migration in Lung Cancer Cells.

As exhibited in XREF_FIG, RAC1 overexpression led to the up-regulation of GST-RAC1, RAC1, PAK1, p-PAK1, LIMK1, p-LIMK1, Cofilin, and p-Cofilin in A549 and PC9 cells, while the opposite pattern of these genes was found in the A549 and PC9 cells after Rac1 knockdown.

As exhibited in XREF_FIG, RAC1 overexpression led to the up-regulation of GST-RAC1, RAC1, PAK1, p-PAK1, LIMK1, p-LIMK1, Cofilin, and p-Cofilin in A549 and PC9 cells, while the opposite pattern of these genes was found in the A549 and PC9 cells after Rac1 knockdown.

The colony formation assays showed that ectopic overexpression of RAC1 promoted growth of both A549 and PC9 cells compared to empty vector control (XREF_FIG).

The results demonstrated that RAC1 increased survival capacity of A549 and PC9 cells after IR at 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 Gy (XREF_FIG).

These results suggest that RAC1 promotes proliferation of lung cancer cells.

Furthermore, CCK-8 assays demonstrated that overexpression of RAC1 promoted cell proliferation, but silencing of RAC1 expression inhibited cell proliferation in both A549 and PC9 cells (XREF_FIG).

Furthermore, IR induced RAC1 expression and activity via the activation of PI3K and AKT signaling pathway, and then enhancing cell proliferation, survival, migration and metastasis and increasing levels of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers, which facilitated the cell survival and invasive phenotypes.

Collectively, we further found that RAC1 enhanced radioresistance by promoting EMT via targeting the PAK1-LIMK1-Cofilins signaling in lung cancer.

Silencing Rac1 significantly inhibited the EMT phenotype in lung cancer cells, accompanied with a significant down-regulation of RAC1, PAK1, p-PAK1, LIMK1, p-LIMK1, Cofilin, and p-Cofilin in lung cancer cells.

Our previous study found that RAC1 could significantly induce the EMT of colon cancer cells, which may be related to the positive regulation of Rac1/PAK1/LIMK1/Cofilins signaling pathway.

Down-regulated of RAC1 expression or loss of its function significantly suppressed cancer cell proliferation and metastasis.

Additionally, IR could enhance the expression and activation of RAC1, positively associated with the up-regulation of PAK1, p-PAK1, LIMK1, p-LIMK1, Cofilin and p-Cofilin.

In this report, we found that IR could induce the up-regulation of RAC1 expression and activity via activating the PI3K and AKT signaling pathway.

IR significantly promoted the expression of GST-RAC1, RAC1, PAK1, p-PAK1, LIMK1, p-LIMK1, Cofilin, and p-Cofilin in the cells treated with IR.

These results indicate that IR increases the expression and activity of Rac1 via activating the PI3K and AKT signaling pathway.

A question is how IR induces Rac1 expression.

In addition, as shown in XREF_FIG, the results of GST-pull down assays showed Rac1 expression and activity was significantly increased after 6 Gy dose of IR in lung cancer cells, suggesting that IR could promote the Rac1 expression and activity.

IR Induces RAC1 Expression and EMT in Lung Cancer Cells.

Consistent with the in vitro results, RAC1 significantly enhanced tumor xenograft growth treated with IR (XREF_FIG).

The western blot results showed that IR could significantly increase the PI3K, p-AKT, AKT, and RAC1, whereas the LY294002 reversed this effect in both A549 and PC9 cells (XREF_FIG).

Furthermore, IR induced RAC1 expression and activity via the activation of PI3K and AKT signaling pathway, and then enhancing cell proliferation, survival, migration and metastasis and increasing levels of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers, which facilitated the cell survival and invasive phenotypes.

In this study, we also found that overexpression of Rac1 significantly promoted the migration and invasion, and radioresistance of lung cancer cells, whereas the knockdown of Rac1 markedly inhibited these capabilities of lung cancer cells in vivo and in vitro.

In this article, we uncovered inhibition of RAC1 in lung cancer cells is sufficient to abrogate the IR induced and RAC1 mediated tumor migration and invasion, as evidenced by cell proliferation, colony formation, and Transwell assay.

RAC1 Promotes Radioresistance, Invasion and Migration in Lung Cancer Cells.

As exhibited in XREF_FIG, RAC1 overexpression led to the up-regulation of GST-RAC1, RAC1, PAK1, p-PAK1, LIMK1, p-LIMK1, Cofilin, and p-Cofilin in A549 and PC9 cells, while the opposite pattern of these genes was found in the A549 and PC9 cells after Rac1 knockdown.

As exhibited in XREF_FIG, RAC1 overexpression led to the up-regulation of GST-RAC1, RAC1, PAK1, p-PAK1, LIMK1, p-LIMK1, Cofilin, and p-Cofilin in A549 and PC9 cells, while the opposite pattern of these genes was found in the A549 and PC9 cells after Rac1 knockdown.

The colony formation assays showed that ectopic overexpression of RAC1 promoted growth of both A549 and PC9 cells compared to empty vector control (XREF_FIG).

The results demonstrated that RAC1 increased survival capacity of A549 and PC9 cells after IR at 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 Gy (XREF_FIG).

These results suggest that RAC1 promotes proliferation of lung cancer cells.

Furthermore, CCK-8 assays demonstrated that overexpression of RAC1 promoted cell proliferation, but silencing of RAC1 expression inhibited cell proliferation in both A549 and PC9 cells (XREF_FIG).

Furthermore, IR induced RAC1 expression and activity via the activation of PI3K and AKT signaling pathway, and then enhancing cell proliferation, survival, migration and metastasis and increasing levels of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers, which facilitated the cell survival and invasive phenotypes.

Collectively, we further found that RAC1 enhanced radioresistance by promoting EMT via targeting the PAK1-LIMK1-Cofilins signaling in lung cancer.

Silencing Rac1 significantly inhibited the EMT phenotype in lung cancer cells, accompanied with a significant down-regulation of RAC1, PAK1, p-PAK1, LIMK1, p-LIMK1, Cofilin, and p-Cofilin in lung cancer cells.

Our previous study found that RAC1 could significantly induce the EMT of colon cancer cells, which may be related to the positive regulation of Rac1/PAK1/LIMK1/Cofilins signaling pathway.

However, blocking CD32 but not CD64 to inhibit CRP induced FLS proliferation, invasiveness, and proinflammatory cytokine CXCL8 production revealed a major role for CD32 signaling in synovial inflammation, although CRP via CD64, not CD32, to induce MMP9 expression was noticed.

As shown in XREF_FIG, CRP induced expression of CCL2 and IL-6 was blocked by either neutralizing antibody to CD32 or CD64 or both, suggesting that CRP signals through both CD32 and CD64 to induce expression of CCL2 and IL-6.

As shown in XREF_FIG, CRP induced expression of CCL2 and IL-6 was blocked by either neutralizing antibody to CD32 or CD64 or both, suggesting that CRP signals through both CD32 and CD64 to induce expression of CCL2 and IL-6.

Thus, it is highly possible that high concentration of CRP in synovial fluid in patients with RA may directly bind primarily CD32 to activate p38 MAP kinase and NF-kappaB signaling in RA-FLSs to differentially regulate synovial inflammation.

In vitro studies confirmed this notion and found that CRP was able to upregulate both CD32 and CD64 and induced FLS proliferation, invasion, and pro inflammatory expression by increasing production of CCL2, CXCL8, IL-6, MMP2, MMP9 while suppressing an anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 expression.

RA-FLS was a major cell type responsible for CRP production in RA patients, accounting for more than 65% of CRP producing cells as identified by co-expressing CRP and vimentin in the inflamed synovial tissues in patients with RA.

As shown in XREF_FIG, multiplex cytokine assay kits assays showed that addition of CRP dose-dependently upregulated CCL2, CXCL8, IL-6, MMP2, MMP9 in RA-FLS but not in HFLS, although expression of IL-1beta and TNFalpha was not significantly changed (XREF_FIG).

In vitro studies confirmed this notion and found that CRP was able to upregulate both CD32 and CD64 and induced FLS proliferation, invasion, and pro inflammatory expression by increasing production of CCL2, CXCL8, IL-6, MMP2, MMP9 while suppressing an anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 expression.

In vitro studies confirmed this notion and found that CRP was able to upregulate both CD32 and CD64 and induced FLS proliferation, invasion, and pro inflammatory expression by increasing production of CCL2, CXCL8, IL-6, MMP2, MMP9 while suppressing an anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 expression.

As shown in XREF_FIG, multiplex cytokine assay kits assays showed that addition of CRP dose-dependently upregulated CCL2, CXCL8, IL-6, MMP2, MMP9 in RA-FLS but not in HFLS, although expression of IL-1beta and TNFalpha was not significantly changed (XREF_FIG).

In vitro studies confirmed this notion and found that CRP was able to upregulate both CD32 and CD64 and induced FLS proliferation, invasion, and pro inflammatory expression by increasing production of CCL2, CXCL8, IL-6, MMP2, MMP9 while suppressing an anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 expression.

As shown in XREF_FIG, multiplex cytokine assay kits assays showed that addition of CRP dose-dependently upregulated CCL2, CXCL8, IL-6, MMP2, MMP9 in RA-FLS but not in HFLS, although expression of IL-1beta and TNFalpha was not significantly changed (XREF_FIG).

In vitro studies confirmed this notion and found that CRP was able to upregulate both CD32 and CD64 and induced FLS proliferation, invasion, and pro inflammatory expression by increasing production of CCL2, CXCL8, IL-6, MMP2, MMP9 while suppressing an anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 expression.

As shown in XREF_FIG, multiplex cytokine assay kits assays showed that addition of CRP dose-dependently upregulated CCL2, CXCL8, IL-6, MMP2, MMP9 in RA-FLS but not in HFLS, although expression of IL-1beta and TNFalpha was not significantly changed (XREF_FIG).

In vitro studies confirmed this notion and found that CRP was able to upregulate both CD32 and CD64 and induced FLS proliferation, invasion, and pro inflammatory expression by increasing production of CCL2, CXCL8, IL-6, MMP2, MMP9 while suppressing an anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 expression.

As shown in XREF_FIG, multiplex cytokine assay kits assays showed that addition of CRP dose-dependently upregulated CCL2, CXCL8, IL-6, MMP2, MMP9 in RA-FLS but not in HFLS, although expression of IL-1beta and TNFalpha was not significantly changed (XREF_FIG).

In vitro studies confirmed this notion and found that CRP was able to upregulate both CD32 and CD64 and induced FLS proliferation, invasion, and pro inflammatory expression by increasing production of CCL2, CXCL8, IL-6, MMP2, MMP9 while suppressing an anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 expression.

This was further confirmed by the ability of pre-treating RA-FLS with a NF-kappaB inhibitor, PDTC (100 mumol/L) to inhibit CRP induced proliferation (XREF_FIG) and upregulation of CXCL8, CCL2.

CRP can induce synovial inflammation via mechanisms associated with activation of CD32/64-p 38 and NF-kappaB signaling.

Here we tested the hypothesis that CRP may be produced locally by FLSs and functions to induce the synovial inflammation in patients with RA.

CRP may promote synovial inflammation via mechanism associated with activation of CD32/64- p38 and NF-kappaB signaling.

In the present study, we found that CRP signaled primarily through CD32, to a less extent of CD64, to differentially regulate joint inflammation.

CRP Promotes RA-FLS Pro inflammatory Response Differentially via the CD32/64-p 38 and NF-kappaB-Dependent Mechanisms in vitro.

This was supported by the findings that CRP induced activation of p38 MAP kinase and NF-kappaB signaling was blunted by neutralizing antibodies against CD32 but not CD64.

To examine whether CRP induces NF-kappaB nuclear translation, immunofluorescence and subcellular fractionation were performed.

However, blocking CD32 but not CD64 to inhibit CRP induced FLS proliferation, invasiveness, and proinflammatory cytokine CXCL8 production revealed a major role for CD32 signaling in synovial inflammation, although CRP via CD64, not CD32, to induce MMP9 expression was noticed.

As shown in XREF_FIG, CRP induced expression of CCL2 and IL-6 was blocked by either neutralizing antibody to CD32 or CD64 or both, suggesting that CRP signals through both CD32 and CD64 to induce expression of CCL2 and IL-6.

As shown in XREF_FIG, CRP induced expression of CCL2 and IL-6 was blocked by either neutralizing antibody to CD32 or CD64 or both, suggesting that CRP signals through both CD32 and CD64 to induce expression of CCL2 and IL-6.

Thus, it is highly possible that high concentration of CRP in synovial fluid in patients with RA may directly bind primarily CD32 to activate p38 MAP kinase and NF-kappaB signaling in RA-FLSs to differentially regulate synovial inflammation.

In vitro studies confirmed this notion and found that CRP was able to upregulate both CD32 and CD64 and induced FLS proliferation, invasion, and pro inflammatory expression by increasing production of CCL2, CXCL8, IL-6, MMP2, MMP9 while suppressing an anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 expression.

RA-FLS was a major cell type responsible for CRP production in RA patients, accounting for more than 65% of CRP producing cells as identified by co-expressing CRP and vimentin in the inflamed synovial tissues in patients with RA.

As shown in XREF_FIG, multiplex cytokine assay kits assays showed that addition of CRP dose-dependently upregulated CCL2, CXCL8, IL-6, MMP2, MMP9 in RA-FLS but not in HFLS, although expression of IL-1beta and TNFalpha was not significantly changed (XREF_FIG).

S100A8 Induced Pro Inflammatory Cytokine Production Via Phosphorylation of ERK and JNK in BV-2 Cells.

Also, the phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) were stimulated by S100A8, which had an analogous effect to the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment (XREF_FIG C-E).

S100A8 Induced Pro Inflammatory Cytokine Production Via Phosphorylation of ERK and JNK in BV-2 Cells.

Also, the phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) were stimulated by S100A8, which had an analogous effect to the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment (XREF_FIG C-E).

The S100A8 knockdown using shRNA revealed that COX-2 and PGE 2 expression was regulated by S100A8, which suggested that the intracellular increase of microglial S100A8 levels upregulated COX-2 expression and PGE2 secretion, contributing to neuronal death under hypoxic conditions.

In agreement with previous reports, the results of this study confirmed that S100A8 significantly increased the production of IL-6, TNF-alpha, and IL-1beta.

In agreement with previous reports, the results of this study confirmed that S100A8 significantly increased the production of IL-6, TNF-alpha, and IL-1beta.

These results strongly suggested that S100A8 induced the NLRP3 inflammasome priming via NF-kappaB activation.

The results suggested that S100A8, secreted by neuronal cells under hypoxic conditions, triggered the priming of NLRP3 in microglial cells, through the TLR4 and NF-kappaB signaling.

In addition, the translocation of NF-kB, which played a pivotal role in regulating the expression and activation of NLRP3, was also increased when cells were treated with S100A8.

These results suggested that S100A8, secreted by neuronal cells under hypoxic conditions, combined with TLR4 of microglia cells, activated the NLRP3 inflammasome priming.

In agreement with previous reports, the results of this study confirmed that S100A8 significantly increased the production of IL-6, TNF-alpha, and IL-1beta.

However, for the first time, we showed that up-regulation of microglial S100A8 levels increased neuronal apoptosis after hypoxia, in primary multicellular cultures consisting of neurons, astrocytes, and microglia.

Therefore, this study determined whether S100A8 induced neuronal apoptosis during cerebral hypoxia and elucidated its mechanism of action using in vitro systems, including astrocytes and microglial and neuronal cells, under hypoxic conditions.

S100A8 Knockdown on Microglia Attenuated Neuronal Apoptosis by Hypoxia.

To investigate whether S100A8 expression in microglia induced apoptosis of neuronal cells under hypoxic condition, SH-SY5Y cells were co-cultured with BV-2 cells transfected with S100A8 shRNA for 48 h in a 0.4 mum pore transwell system and under hypoxic conditions (XREF_FIG A, B).

These findings indicated that the expression of S100A8, induced in microglia cells under hypoxic conditions, activated COX-2 expression and PGE 2 secretion to induce the apoptosis of neurons.

FACS analysis showed that the increase of S100A8 levels in microglia by hypoxia promoted neuronal apoptosis, which was confirmed by immunofluorescence.

Knockdown of S100A8 levels by using shRNA revealed that microglial S100A8 expression activated COX-2 expression, leading to neuronal apoptosis under hypoxia.

S100A8, secreted from neurons under hypoxia, activated the secretion of tumor necrosis factor (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) through phosphorylation of extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) in microglia.

S100A8, secreted from neurons under hypoxia, activated the secretion of tumor necrosis factor (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) through phosphorylation of extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) in microglia.

The aim of this study was to determine whether S100A8 induced neuronal apoptosis during cerebral hypoxia and elucidate its mechanism of action.

The BMP9 induced phosphorylation of CREB or Smad1/5/9 is also reduced by PTEN, but enhanced by PTEN knockdown.

The BMP9 induced phosphorylation of CREB or Smad1/5/9 is also reduced by PTEN, but enhanced by PTEN knockdown.

PTEN Reduces BMP9 Induced Osteogenic Differentiation Through Inhibiting Wnt10b in Mesenchymal Stem Cells.

On the contrary, knockdown of PTEN potentiated the effects of BMP9 on Runx2 (XREF_FIG), OPN (XREF_FIG), and mineralization (XREF_FIG).

H&E staining results also show that knockdown of PTEN potentiated the effect of BMP9 on increasing trabecular bone, and knockdown of Wnt10b exhibited a reversal effect and almost diminished the effect of PTEN knockdown on enhancing BMP9 induced bone formation (XREF_FIG).

Thus, we speculate that PTEN may reduce the potential of BMP9 on activating Wnt and beta-catenin through inhibiting the expression of Wnt10b in multiple progenitor cells.

As reported, PTEN can reduce the activation of the Wnt and beta-catenin signaling pathway through regulating the phosphorylation of GSK3beta.

The BMP9 increased Wnt10b is decreased by PTEN but enhanced by knockdown of PTEN.

Hence, Wnt10b may be negatively regulated by PTEN through PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling.

We find that PTEN is inhibited by BMP9 in MSCs, but Wnt10b is increased simultaneously.

Because BMP9 inhibited PTEN and increased Wnt10b simultaneously, Wnt10b may be implicated in the suppressive effects of PTEN on the osteogenic potential of BMP9.

Our previous study shows that PTEN is downregulated by BMP9 during the osteogenic process in MSCs.

In our previous studies, we find that PTEN is inhibited by BMP9, but Wnt10b is increased concurrently.

In this study, we confirmed that BMP9 inhibits PTEN and increases Wnt10b simultaneously in MSCs.

However, knockdown of Wnt10b almost abolished the effect of PTEN knockdown on promoting BMP9 induced bone formation (XREF_FIG).

H&E staining results also show that knockdown of PTEN potentiated the effect of BMP9 on increasing trabecular bone, and knockdown of Wnt10b exhibited a reversal effect and almost diminished the effect of PTEN knockdown on enhancing BMP9 induced bone formation (XREF_FIG).

In this study, we determined whether PTEN could reduce the expression of Wnt10b during the osteogenic process initialized by BMP9 in mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and the possible molecular mechanism.

These data suggest that PTEN may negatively regulate the expression of Wnt10b in MSCs at least.

In this study, we demonstrate that the inhibitory effect of PTEN on BMP9 induced osteogenic differentiation can be partially reversed by Wnt10b, and the expression of Wnt10b can be inhibited by PTEN through disturbing the interaction between CREB and BMP and Smad signaling at least.

Meanwhile, PTEN may modulate the activity of Wnt and beta-catenin signaling via a Wnt10b dependent manner although the concrete process needs to be further unveiled.

However, it remains unknown whether PTEN could modulate the activation of Wnt and beta-catenin signaling through regulating the expression of Wnt10b.

Meanwhile, PTEN may modulate the activity of Wnt and beta-catenin signaling via a Wnt10b dependent manner although the concrete process needs to be further unveiled.

However, it remains unknown whether PTEN could modulate the activation of Wnt and beta-catenin signaling through regulating the expression of Wnt10b.

Although Wnt10b may reverse the suppressive effect of PTEN on the osteogenic potential of BMP9, the concrete relationship between them is unclear.

In this study, we determined whether Wnt10b could reverse the inhibitory effect of PTEN on the BMP9 induced osteogenic process in MSCs and dissect the possible relationship between PTEN and Wnt10b during the osteoblastic commitment initialized by BMP9 in progenitor cells.

Loss or gain-of-function mutations in TP53 induce dedifferentiation and proliferation of SCs with damaged DNA leading to the generation of CSCs.

TP53 maintains homeostasis between self-renewal and differentiation depending on the cellular and developmental state and prevents the dedifferentiation and reprogramming of somatic cells to stem cells.

With the advent of reprogramming era, it was further highlighted that p53 loss promote dedifferentiation and reprogramming under favorable conditions.

Furthermore, p53 loss was found to trigger dedifferentiation of mature hepatocytes to pluripotent cells by the activation of SC marker Nestin, which remains suppressed in wild-type p53 bearing cells (XREF_FIG).

While wild type p53 suppresses inflammatory response by inhibiting the production of cytokines and antagonizing NF-kB activity, mutant p53 on the other hand enhances NF-kB activity in response to TNF-alpha and promotes inflammation (XREF_FIG).

Mutant p53 can itself disrupt the balance between stem cell proliferation and differentiation as well as sequester p63 or p73 thereby hindering apoptosis, augmenting proliferation, and driving chemoresistance and metastasis typical of cancer stem cells.

Mutant p53 mediated repression of p63 function can also modulate the expression of certain miRNAs involved in invasion and metastasis such as let-7i, miR-155, miR-205, miR-130b, and miR-27a (XREF_FIG).

Hence, loss of NUMB in breast cancer cells leads to decreased p53 levels and increased activity of NOTCH receptor which confers increased chemoresistance.

Mutant p53 and p63 complex can increase RAB coupling protein (RCP)-mediated recycling of cell surface growth promoting receptors.

This eliminates mitochondria associated p53 which would otherwise be activated by PINK1 to mediate suppression of Nanog (XREF_FIG).

Further, the human p53 isoform Delta133p53beta lacking the transactivation domain was observed to promote CSC features in breast cancer cell lines by expression of Sox2, Oct3/4, and Nanog in a Delta133p53beta dependent manner.

Acetylation of p53 at K373 by CBP and p300 leads to dissociation of HDM2 and TRIM24 and subsequent activation of p53 which in turn transcriptionally activates p21, miR-34a, and miR-145 (XREF_FIG).

Acetylation of p53 at K373 by CBP and p300 leads to dissociation of HDM2 and TRIM24 and subsequent activation of p53 which in turn transcriptionally activates p21, miR-34a, and miR-145 (XREF_FIG).

Mutant p53 implicate various context and tissue dependent mechanisms to promote cancer cell invasion and metastasis.

Various transcription factors such as NF-Y, SREBPs, ETS, and EGFR1 play crucial role in mutant p53 driven invasion and metastasis.

Mutant p53 implicate various context and tissue dependent mechanisms to promote cancer cell invasion and metastasis.

Various transcription factors such as NF-Y, SREBPs, ETS, and EGFR1 play crucial role in mutant p53 driven invasion and metastasis.

This suggests that acetylation at K320 and K373 can alter the structure of mutant p53 and restore wild type p53 functions.

Mutant p53 can also induce YAP and TAZ nuclear localization by interacting with SREBP and activating the mevalonate pathway.

Mutant p53 can also promote proliferation by inducing the REG-gamma proteosome pathway in association with p300 (XREF_FIG).

GOF mutant p53 can modify the tumor microenvironment and has been found to support chronic inflammation.

While wild type p53 suppresses inflammatory response by inhibiting the production of cytokines and antagonizing NF-kB activity, mutant p53 on the other hand enhances NF-kB activity in response to TNF-alpha and promotes inflammation (XREF_FIG).

In absence of AMPK, mitochondrial stress augments aerobic glycolysis, also called " Warburg effect " in tumor cells, which is promoted by mutant p53.

Several evidence demonstrate that mutant p53 promotes glycolysis and reprograms the cellular metabolism of cancer cells.

Gain-of function mutant p53 further promotes EMT and stemness phenotypes by activating genes regulating them.

Although these studies highlight that mutant p53 mediated EMT phenotype confer stemness in cancer cells, however, there is still a lot to explore in context of molecular mechanisms of mutant p53 driven stemness through activation of EMT genes.

However, whether mutant p53 induced EMT trigger stemness properties in cancer cells, is still quite unexplored.

While wild type p53 suppresses inflammatory response by inhibiting the production of cytokines and antagonizing NF-kB activity, mutant p53 on the other hand enhances NF-kB activity in response to TNF-alpha and promotes inflammation (XREF_FIG).

The sustained activation of NF-kB signaling by mutant p53 not only elevate inflammatory response but also protects the cancer cells from cytotoxic effects of tumor microenvironment by activating pro survival pathways.

Interaction of mutant p53 to SREBPs activates mevalonate pathway that promotes invasion in breast cancer cells (XREF_FIG).

Mutant p53 can also induce YAP and TAZ nuclear localization by interacting with SREBP and activating the mevalonate pathway.

Similarly, p53 activation by nutlin leads to transcriptional activation of p21 that cause cell cycle arrest and induces differentiation in human ESCs.

These findings demonstrated that PLG reduces the calcification in VSMCs by regulating P53, indicating that P53 plays an important role in the calcification of VSMCs.

These experiments demonstrate that PLG attenuates arterial calcification by upregulating the P53 and PTEN signaling pathway and that this inhibitory effect on calcification can be blocked by P53 knockdown.

In various types of cancer cells, PLG significantly enhances the expression of wild-type P53 and PUMA, and it inhibits the expression of many pro survival proteins, such as BCL2, survivin and XIAP.

PLG has antitumour activity and significantly increases the expression of wild-type P53.

Similarly, the expression of P53 in the Vit D group was significantly reduced, and PLG treatment effectively increased the expression of P53 in the aorta (XREF_FIG).

These results showed that PLG upregulated the expression of P53 during vascular calcification by reducing STAT3 phosphorylation.

Western blotting and qRT-PCR analyses showed that high calcium and phosphate treatment reduced the P53 expression level in VSMCs and that PLG significantly increased the P53 expression level compared to the control group.

Runx2 is a master transcription factor involved in bone formation and vascular calcification, and P53 can interact with Runx2 during osteogenic differentiation.

The effective PLG concentration used (10 to 15 muM) to induce apoptosis in tumor cells increases P53 by three- to four-fold compared to the level in control cells.

We hypothesize that P53 activation by PLG in VSMCs is mediated by decreased activation of STAT3.

PTEN is induced by P53 in the early and late stages of cell response, and PTEN and P53 interact.

Deletion of MDM2, an inhibitor of P53, in osteoblast lineage cells leads to increased P53 production, which in turn inhibits bone organogenesis and homeostasis.

In conclusion, PLG attenuates high calcium and phosphate induced vascular calcification by upregulating P53 and PTEN signaling in VSMCs.

The main findings of the present study indicated that (1) PLG is a promising natural herbal extract for the management of vascular calcification and that (2) PLG attenuates high calcium- and phosphate induced vascular calcification by preserving P53 and PTEN signaling in VSMCs.

In conclusion, PLG attenuates high calcium and phosphate induced vascular calcification by upregulating P53 and PTEN signaling in VSMCs.

The main findings of the present study indicated that (1) PLG is a promising natural herbal extract for the management of vascular calcification and that (2) PLG attenuates high calcium- and phosphate induced vascular calcification by preserving P53 and PTEN signaling in VSMCs.

To examine whether FoxO3a is required for PTEN mediated negative regulation of autophagy, we analyzed the mRNA levels of ATG5, ATG7, and ATG12 in the ipsilateral hippocampus post-ICH.

In the present study, PTEN inhibition not only reduced the levels of autophagy related proteins but also activated the PI3K and AKT pathway in the ipsilateral hippocampus after ICH.

Specifically, PTEN antagonized the PI3K and AKT signaling and downstream effector FoxO3a phosphorylation and subsequently enhanced nuclear translocation of FoxO3a to drive proautophagy gene program, but these changes were diminished upon PTEN inhibition.

Mechanistically, blockage of PTEN could enhance FoxO3a phosphorylation modification to restrict its nuclear translocation and ATG transcription via activating the PI3K and AKT pathway, leading to the suppression of the autophagic program.

According to these data, we speculate that posthemorrhagic PTEN elevation triggers the nuclear accumulation of FoxO3a and subsequent transcriptional activation of ATGs, resulting in sequential activation of autophagy.

Herein, we identified that ICH induced a significant increase in ATG transcriptional levels including ATG5, ATG7, and ATG12, which was strongly associated with PTEN mediated FoxO3a nuclear translocation.

PTEN Inhibition Reverses Secondary Hippocampal Injury Post-ICH.

Also, inactivation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway has been implicated in PTEN induced autophagy initiation [XREF_BIBR, XREF_BIBR].

The precise mechanism of how LASP1 promotes PTEN ubiquitination still remains elusive 53.

One study showed that Nuclear Receptor Binding SET Domain Protein 2 (NSD2)-mediated dimethylation of PTEN promotes 53BP1 interactions and subsequent recruitment to sites of DNA-damage sites 75.

By using specific mutants of PTEN lacking lipid phosphatase function, an early study concluded that PTEN may block cell migration through a protein phosphatase mediated function on focal adhesion kinase (FAK) protein 14.

PTEN and PDHK1 were observed to have a synthetic-lethal relationship, as loss of PTEN and upregulation of PDHK1 in cells induced glycolysis and a dependency on PDHK1 100.

This PTEN/ARID4B/PI3K signalling axis identifies a novel player in the PTEN mediated suppression of the PI3K pathway and provides a new opportunity to design novel therapeutics to target this axis to promote the tumour suppressive functions of PTEN.

In one of these studies, Baker et al. reported that Notch1 can mediate transcriptional suppression of PTEN, resulting in the derepression of PI3K signalling and development of trastuzumab resistance 91.

This study was the first to link the Ras-MAPK and PI3K pathways through Notch1 transcriptional suppression of PTEN 91.

It was reported that PTEN could dephosphorylate PGK1, a glycolytic enzyme and protein kinase with a tumorigenic role in glioblastoma 99.

Dephosphorylation of PGK1 by PTEN was found to inhibit its activity, downstream glycolytic functions, and glioblastoma cell proliferation 99, thereby presenting another mechanism in which PTEN functions as a tumour suppressor.

Newer studies add to this small body of data, including an intriguing study where a novel PTEN/ARID4B/PI3K pathway in which PTEN inhibits the expression of ARID4B was characterised.

PTEN inhibits ARID4B expression and thus prevents the transcriptional activation of ARID4B transcriptional targets PIK3CA and PIK3R2 (PI3K subunits) 79.

Furthermore, nuclear PTEN directly interacted with and inhibited RNA polymerase II (RNAPII)-mediated transcription, where it was involved in direct downregulation of critical transcriptional control genes including AFF4 and POL2RA 80.

Colocalisation of PTEN and PTENalpha promoted the function of PINK1, a mitochondrial-target kinase, and subsequently promoted energy production 105.

It is known that AKT signaling plays a critical role in the regulation of pre-mRNA splicing 77 and PTEN has been shown to modulate G6PD pre-mRNA splicing in an AKT independent manner 78.

Numb inhibits Notch1, leading to the downregulation of RBP-Jkappa 94, which upregulates PTEN and anti-EMT effectors, leading to the downregulation of p-FAK and pro EMT effectors 94.

Thus, while p53 deletion and missense mutations can enhance mTOR, emphasizing the functional interplay between AMPK and wild-type p53, some mutants can display effects on the canonical AMPK-mTOR signaling beyond the transcriptional repression.

By promoting glucose uptake, mutant p53 can limit autophagy dependent energy production.

Thus, while mutant p53 enhanced glucose metabolism can correspondingly suppressed autophagy in proliferating cancer cells, it is reasonable that a reduced glycolysis by mutant p53 can induce autophagy in quiescent cells.

This is in fact in line with the observations that CHIP, beyond targeting wild-type p53 by K48 polyubiquitinition, preferentially degrades aggregation prone mutant p53 proteins through K63 polyubiquitinition chains.

Although p21 expression generally contributes to the induction of an irreversible proliferative arrest, transient p53 mediated induction of p21 is reversible, allowing cells to re-enter the cell cycle once stress or damage has been resolved.

Therefore, it is reasonable that some mutant p53 forms may enhance autophagy required to prevent energy crisis and maintain nucleotide pools during starvation in cancer cells caused by hypoxia and nutrition depletion in tumor microenvironment.

Alternatively, the mutant p53 driven autophagy suppressive function might be overridden by additional signaling, mutations or epigenetic changes.

Secondly, while mutant p53 have been linked to promote glycolysis through distinct mechanisms, emerging data supports the notion that not all mutants display enhanced glycolysis.

Therefore, sophisticated animal studies are needed for tumors that have undergone mutant p53 induced EMT program to provide an in vivo correlate in preclinical models.