In poverty he left the town

Forth must I fare on woeful quest To dwell where never man may be, Of beasts and birds to be the guest. And when ye know my soul has rest, Call then yourselves a parliament, And choose a king as seems you best. Do all as this my testament.”

king

wo gallant horsemen, young and fair, Rode to my feet, and bent the knee,   ” And bade me come with haste and speed To parley with their lord the king. But I replied I durst not heed,

Would have deemed his spirit were Housed in Heaven, such melody Was it, and such joy to hear.

minstrelsy

Orfeo most of any king Loved a harper and his lay

Christian

mirth

featly

Increase Font Size Toggle Menu HomeReadSign in Search in book: Search Contents Introduction: An Open Companion The ProjectAdditional Information:AUTHORS: Accessibility Statement Pressbooks’ Accessibility Policy:Contact us with any Accessibility Issues: I. The Middle Ages (ca. 476-1485) 1. Introduction: Caedmon's Hymn Bede: Biography2. Dream of the Rood 3. Introduction: Beowulf: Parts I & II Introduction: BeowulfStory SummaryThemesHistorical BackgroundLiterary StyleDiscussion Questions: Further Resources for Students:Reading: Beowulf Part II4. Beowulf: Part III 5. Judith X.XI.XII.6. The Wanderer7. Wulf and Eadwacer8. The Wife's Lament9. The Ruin 10. Selection of Old English Riddles I. A StormII. A StormIII. A StormV. A ShieldVII. A SwanVIII. A NightingaleXIV. A HornXXIII. A BowXXVI. A BibleXLV. DoughXLVII. A BookwormLX. A Reed II. Irish Literature 11. Cúchulainn’s Boyish Deeds  Introduction: Cúchulainn’s Boyish Deeds III. Introduction: Anglo-Norman Literature 12. Selections: The Myth of Arthur's Return 13. Tristan and Iseult IntroductionSTORY SUMMARYLITERARY THEMESDiscussion Questions:Further Resources for Students:14. From: Guide for Anchoresses (Ancrene Wisse) 15. Romances of Marie de France IntroductionBiographyInfluencesWriting StyleDiscussion Questions:Further Resources for Students: 16. Sir Orfeo IV. Middle English Literature in the 14th and 15th Century 17. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (ca. 1375-1400) 18. Sir Gawain: Parts I & II IntroductionBackground:The Character of Sir Gawain: Story Summary: Themes:Discussion Questions:Further Resources for Students: 19. Sir Gawain: Parts III & IV20. Geoffrey Chaucer: The Canterbury Tales21. Canterbury Tales: General Prologue 22. Canterbury Tales: The Knight's Tale lines 1-34: About Duke Theseus, lord of Athens, and his achievementslines 35-93: Women complain that they have lost their husbands in battlelines 117-146: The achievement of revengelines 147-174: Two knights, Arcita and Palamon, are captured and imprisonedlines 175-233: Emily walks in the garden and is seen by the two prisonerslines 234-264: Arcita compares Emily with Venuslines 265-293: Palamon claims Emily to be his lady and lovelines 294-328: Arcita rejects Palamon’s claimlines 329-350: Arcita is ransomedlines 351-360: The conditions of the ransomlines 361-416: Arcita is released from prison and regrets losing the sight on Emily 23. Canterbury Tales: Miller's Prologue and Tale Introduction: The Miller’s TaleStory SummaryReading: The Miller’s PrologueThe Miller’s Tale 24. Canterbury Tales: The Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale Introduction: The Wife of BathStory Summary:Reading: The Wife of Bath’s PrologueWife of Bath’s Tale 25. The Canterbury Tales: The Friar's Prologue and Tale The Friar’s PrologueThe Friar’s Tale 26. Canterbury Tales: The Pardoner's Prologue and Tale Introduction: The PardonerStory Summary:Reading: Pardoner’s PrologueThe Pardoner’s Tale 27. Canterbury Tales: The Nun's Priest's Tale Introduction: The Nun’s Priest’s TaleStory Summary:Reading: The Nun’s Priest’s Tale: PrologueThe Nun’s Priest’s Tale28. Chaucer's Retraction to Canterbury Tales 29. From: The Vision of Piers Plowman by William Langland From: The PrologueFrom: Passus IFrom: Passus 5Passus 6From: Passus 7From The C-Text30. Julian of Norwich: Revelations of Divine Love (Selections) 31. Margery Kempe: Excerpts from The Book of Margery Kempe IntroductionReading: The Birth of Her First Child and Her First Vision (excerpt)Her Pride and Attempts to Start a Business (excerpt)Margery and Her Husband Reach a Settlement32. The Wakefield Second Shepherd's Play33. Middle English Lyrics34. Robert Henryson: The Cock and the Jasp35. Everyman 36. Thomas Malory: Le Morte d'Arthur Introdution: Le Morte d’ArthurReading: Selection from Morte d’Arthur  V. The Sixteenth Century 37. Sir Thomas More: Utopia UTOPIA38. From: The Book of Common Prayer39. From: The Schoolmaster by Roger Ascham 40. WOMEN IN POWER: Selected Readings Mary I (Tudor): IntroductionMary Tudor: BiographyLady Jane GreyIntroductionMary Queen of Scots: IntroductionElizabeth I: IntroductionBiography41. Edmund Spencer: the Faerie Queene (Book I) 42. Sir Walter Raleigh: Poems and From: The Discovery of the Large, Rich and Beautiful Empire of Guiana Sir Walter Raleigh: IntroductionBiography: Sir Walter RaleighPoems43. Sir Philip Sidney: From Astrophil and Stella 44. THE WIDER WORLD: Selected Readings The Wider World: Selected Readings Richard Hakluyt: BiographyReading: Hakluyt’s Dedicatory Epistle to The Principal Navigations, 1589Leo Africanus: BiographyReading: Leo Africanus on the North Africans, 1526An English Traveller’s Guide to the North Africans, 1547Voyage to the Arctic, 1577, with Reflections on Racial DifferenceAmadas and Barlowe’s Voyage to Virginia, 1584Introduction: Thomas HariotHariot’s Report on Virginia, 1585General History of the Turks, 1603Introduction: Thomas DallamReading: A Gift for the Sultan 45. Christopher Marlowe: Hero and Leander Hero and Leander 46. Christopher Marlowe: Doctor Faustus The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus 47. William Shakespeare: Introduction Biography  48. William Shakespeare: Selected Sonnets Introduction: Shakespeare’s SonnetsNotable Themes and SummariesReading: Selected Sonnets 49. William Shakespeare: Taming of the Shrew Introduction: Taming of the ShrewExtended OverviewReading: THE TAMING OF THE SHREW VI. Early Seventeenth Century 50. John Dunne: Selections Songs and SonnetsA Selection of Holy SonnetsFrom: Devotions upon Emergent Occasions51. Aemilia Lanyar: Salve Deus Rex Judaeorum 52. Ben Jonson: Epigrams and Poetry EpigramsPoemsFrom: Underwood 53. Selections by Mary Wroth From: The Countess of Montgomery’s Urania SongFrom: Pamphilia to AmphilanthusFrom: A Crown of Sonnets Dedicated to Love  54. GENDER RELATIONS: Conflict and Counsel From: The Arraignment of Lewd, Idle, Froward, and Unconstant Women: Or the Vanity of Them Choose you WhetherRachel Speght: From A Muzzle for Melastomus William Gouge: From Domestical Duties55. Francis Bacon: Essays56. Margaret Cavendish: The Blazing World 57. George Herbert: The Temple The Temple 58. CRISIS OF AUTHORITY Readings Crisis of Authority: The Beheading of Charles IFrom: King Charles, His Trial (1649)From: A Perfect Diurnal of Some Passages in Parliament, no. 288Crisis of Authority: Political WritingsRobert Filmer: From Patriarcha Introduction: John Milton’s Political WritingsReading: From The Tenure of Kings and MagistratesGerrard Winstanley: From A New Year’s Gift Sent to the Parliament and ArmyThomas Hobbes: From LeviathanCrisis of Authority: Writing the SelfLucy Hutchinson: From Memoirs of the Life of Colonel John HutchinsonEdward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon: From The History of the RebellionLady Anne Halkett: From The Memoires 59. John Milton: Poems and Sonnets IntroductionReadings: John Milton’s Selected PoemsLycidasSonnets 60. John Milton: Paradise Lost (Books 1-3) BOOK 1BOOK 2BOOK 3 61. John Milton: Paradise Lost (Books 4-6) BOOK 4BOOK 5BOOK 6 62. John Milton: Paradise Lost (Books 7-9) BOOK 7BOOK 8BOOK 9 63. John Milton: Paradise Lost (Books 10-12) BOOK 10BOOK 11BOOK 12 VII. The Eighteenth Century 64. Oroonoko by Aphra Behn Oroonoko: Or, the Royal Slave 65. Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift Gulliver’s Travels  Appendix An Open Companion for British Literature I 16 Sir Orfeo An introduction for this reading has not yet been written.  Reading: Sir Orfeo Adapted from the Middle English by Edward Eyre Hunt, 1909. We often read with new delight The lays that clerks would have us know, For lays there are that sing aright Each wondrous thing of long ago: Some are of weal, and some of woe, And some of joy and gentle mirth, And some of guile and treacherous foe, And some the strangest haps of earth;   Some are of jests and ribaldry, And some there are of fairy lore; But most of all, as men may see, They sing of love and trials sore. In Britain in the days of yore The harpers writ that men should praise The gallant deeds that were before Of such the Britons made their lays.

“Thy lovely body, once so bright, Is bruised as if thou wished thee dead. Alas! alas! how wan and white Thy little mouth that was so red! And dark with blood thy nails have shed Thy fingers that were erst as snow! Thy lovely eyes are full of dread And gaze as if I were thy foe!

Then sudden with a cry she rose And burst in tears of wild despair, And wrung her hands, and showered blows Upon her breast, and tore her hair.

Lady Heurodis

” For thou art rough, and foul, and lean, But lovely as a rose is she.

None may describe that wondrous sight

bonsour

timorous.

His beard, that once was black and trim, Was white, and lengthened to his knee;

gleemen

Stalwart

mirth

And so his kingdom he forsook; He had no kirtle and no hood; A simple palmer’s cloak he took; No shoes he had, no store of food. But with his harp he sadly strode Barefooted from the castle gate, Alone to wander where he would. Alas! how woeful was his state!

” Since we were first together, naught Hath marred our life; no smallest sign; But we have loved as love we ought; Thou art my life, and I am thine. Now do thy best and do not pine, For we must part, and I to doom ! ” ” Alas ! ” he cried, and ” woe is mine ! Where dost thou go, Love, and to whom

None before him was, I trow, Or in after days will be Held the peer of Orfeo

hearken

resplendent

With wine in splendid jugs

blood-sullen

Hoc’s daughter– How could she not Lament her fate When morning came And the light broke On her murdered dears? And so farewell Delight on earth, War carried away 1080 Finn’s troop of thanes, All but a few.

They sang then and played to please the hero, Words and music for their warrior prince, Harp tunes and tales of adventure:

. But death is not easily Escaped from by anyone: All of us with souls, earth-dwellers And children of men, must make our way To a destination already ordained Where the body, after the banqueting, Sleeps on its deathbed.

I have often honored smaller achievements, 950 Recognized warriors not nearly as worthy, Lavished rewards on the less deserving. But you have made yourself immortal By your glorious action. May the Lord of Ages Continue to keep and requite you well.”

But nit came to pass that his sword plunged Right through those radiant scales 890 And drove into the wall. The dragon died of it. His daring had given him total possession Of the treasure hoard , his to dispose of However he liked. He loaded a boat: Wael’s son weighted her hold With dazzling spoils. The hot dragon melted.

chestnut horses

ignominious

As long as either lived He was hateful to the other. The monster’s whole Body was in pain, a tremendous wound Appeared on his shoulder. Sinews split And the bone-lappings burst.

He would rip life from limp and devour them,

Wealhtheow, His queen and bedmate.

So for all your cleverness and quick tongue, You will suffer damnation in the pits of hell.

desolate

my sword had killed

The sleep of the sword,

filigree

beer

Heathoreams

“Are you the Beowulf who took on Breca In a swimming match on the open sea, Risking the water just to prove you could win? It was sheer vanity made you venture out

No need then 450 To lament for long or lay out my body: If the battle takes me, send back

Now Holy God Has, in His Goodness, guided him here To the West-Danes, to defend us from Grendel. This is my hope; and for his heroism I will recompense him with a rich treasure.

The valiant follower stood four-square In front of his king: he knew the courtesies.

Stoutness of heart,

Above their cheek-guards, the brightly forged Work of goldsmiths, watching over Those stern-faced men

What’s more, I’ll order my own comrades On their word of honor to watch your boat

Cain

hell-serf

ignominious

stockade

mauled

vied

gloating

moor-nest

proffer

word-hoard

sentries

looming

gangplank

canny

pagan

Atrocious

rabid

respite

wassail

havoc

anathema

exacted

dwelt

fens

desolate

heath

marauding

quickened

girdled

din

harrow

rampant

held sway

weathered

bewailing

bountifully

tackle

ring-whorled prow

revered

bade

Steadfast

And the goods he hoarded and inherited by another Who lets them go with a liberal hand.

His old possessions seem paltry to him now. He covets and resents; dishonors custom And bestows no gold

swan

Holy God Decided the victory. It was easy for the Lord, The Ruler of Heaven, to redress the balance Once Beowulf got back up on his feet.

The strongest of warriors stumbled and fell.

Beowulf was quickly brought to the chamber: 1310 The winner of fights, the arch-warrior,

She had snatched their trophy, Grendel’s bloodied hand. It was a fresh blow

Counselors

So must a man do Who intends to gain enduring glory In a combat.

They are fatherless creatures, And their whole ancestry is hidden in a past Of demons and ghosts.

With that the old lord sprung to his feet And praised God for Beowulf’s pledge

I shall gain glory or die

They were leaderless In forced allegiance To his murderer. So if any Frisian Stirred up bad blood With insinuations Or taunts about this, The blade of the sword Will arbitrate it.

Past and present, God’s will prevails.

He is hasped and hooped and hirpling with pain, Limped and looped in it.

From any of my burdens: the best of houses Glittered and reeked and ran with blood.

Entwining

His fatal departure 840 Was regretted by no one who witnessed his trail

The howl of the loser, the lament of the hell-serf Keening his wound.

spoiling for action

I meant to perform to the uttermost What your people wanted or perish in the attempt, In the fiend’s clutches. And I shall fulfill that purpose, Prove myself with a proud deed Or meet my death here in the mead-hall.”

My flesh was not for feasting on, There would be no monsters gnawing and gloating Over their banquet at the bottom of the sea.

hen morning light, Scarfed in sun-dazzle, shines forth from the south And brings another daybreak to the world.”

You waded in, embracing water, Taking its measure, mastering currents, Riding on the swell. The ocean swayed, Winter went wild in the waves

Fate goes ever as fate must.”

Then news of Grendel, Hard to ignore, reached me at home:

“We are retainers From Hygelac’s band. Beowulf is my name. If your lord and master, the most renowned Son of Halfdane, will hear me out And graciously allow me to greet him in person, I am ready and willing to report my errand.”

No elder denied him, dear as he was to them. Instead, they inspected omens

So Grendel waged his lonely war, Inflicting constant cruelties on the people, Atrocious hurt. He took over Heorot, Haunted the glittering hall after dark, But the throne itself, the treasure-seat, He was kept from approaching; he was the Lord’s outcast.

weather-eye open

oy-child

while some scholars point to a particularly Christian or pagan reading of the text, what is certain is that there are only allusions to the Old Testament and Christ is never mentioned.

I have never seen so impressive or large

Those stern-faced men

She bade the knights of her company to draw rein, and dismount from their palfreys, so that they might refresh themselves a little.

Thereat the King waxed marvellously wrathful, and swore a great oath that he would set Launfal within a fire, or hang him from a tree, if he could not deny this thing, before his peers.

If you are prudent and discreet, as you are goodly to the view, there is no emperor nor count, nor king, whose day shall be so filled with riches and with mirth as yours.”

By reason of the heat her raiment was unfastened for a little, and her throat and the rondure of her bosom showed whiter and more untouched than hawthorn in May.

Above the tent was set an eagle of gold, so rich and precious, that none might count the cost. The cords and fringes thereof were of silken thread, and the lances which bore aloft the pavilion were of refined gold.

prays that you will follow us, her messengers, as she has a certain word to speak with you. We will lead you swiftly to her pavilion, for our lady is very near at hand.

pass or ford

Sir Launfal would have crossed this stream, without thought of pass or ford, but he might not do so, for reason that his horse was all fearful and trembling

son to a King of high descent, though his heritage was in a distant land.

see so stout

Never were such worship and bounty shown before at any feast, for Arthur bestowed honours and lands on all his servants

nun or a noblewoman as these were among the only literate women in medieval society.

Fair lady,” he answered, “since it pleases you to be so gracious, and to dower so graceless a knight with your love, there is naught that you may bid me do—right or wrong, evil or good—that I will not do to the utmost of my power. I will observe your commandment, and serve in your quarrels. For you I renounce my father and my father’s house. This only I pray, that I may dwell with you in your lodging, and that you will never send me from your side.”

The lad struck so heavily, he thrust home so shrewdly, that Milon’s hatred changed to envy as he watched.

raiment

It were good for me to die rather than to live, but by no means can I escape from their hands.

warily

for when he hears of this matter he will make of me an example.

damsel

kindred

ending all this trouble with his knife.

reviled

dolent

realm

These maidens turned neither to the right hand nor to the left, but went directly to the place where Launfal lay.

.

fomented

filigree

profusely

assail

nightmarish

“To the everlasting Lord of All, To the King of Glory, I give thanks That I beheld this treasure here in front of me, That I have been allowed to leave my people So well endowed on the day I die. Now that I have bartered my last breath To own this fortune, it is up to you 2800 To look after their needs. I can hold out no longer.

Then twelve warriors rode around the tomb, Chieftain’s sons, champions in battle, 3170 All of them distraught, chanting in dirges, Mourning his loss as a man and a king. They extolled his heroic exploits And gave thanks for his greatness; which was the proper thing, For a man should praise a prince whom he holds dear And cherish his memory when that moment comes When he has to be convoyed from his bodily home. So the Geat people, his hearth companions, Sorrowed for the lord who had been laid low. They said that of all the kings upon the earth 3180 He was the man most gracious and fair-minded, Kindest to his people and keenest to win fame.

“You are the last of us, the only one left Of the Waegmundings. Fate swept us away, Sent my whole brave high-born clan To their final doom. Now I must follow them.”

The warriors’ protector, prince of the hall-troop, Ordered a marvelous all-iron shield From his smithy works. He well knew That linden boards would let him down 2340 And timber burn.

The man we loved, to where he will lodge For a long time in the care of the Almighty.

In a commanding position, since of all men To have lived and thrived and lorded it on earth His worth and due as a warrior were the greatest.

Order my troop to construct a barrow On a headland on the coast, after my pyre has cooled. It will loom in the horizon at Hronesness And be a reminder among my people– So that in coming times crews under sail Will call it Beowulf’s barrow, as they steer Ships across the wide and shrouded waters.

press-ganged

affliction

reconnoiter

exquisite

earth-vault

The precious cup Had come to him from the hand of the finder, The one who had started all this strife And was now added as a thirteenth to their number.

Then Beowulf was given bad news, A hard truth: his own home, The best of buildings, had been burnt to a cinder, The throne-room of the Geats.

swathed

The dragon began to belch out flames And burn bright homesteads; there was a hot glow That scared everyone, for the vile sky-winger Would leave nothing alive in his wake. Everywhere the havoc he wrought was in evidence. Far and near, the Geat nation Bore the brunt of his brutal assaults And virulent hate. Then back to the hoard He would dart before daybreak, to hide in his den.

He is driven to hunt out Hoards under ground, to guard heathen gold Through age-long vigils, though to little avail. For three centuries, this scourge of the people Had stood guard on that stoutly protected Underground treasury

vigils

Between the two of us will turn out as fate, Overseer of men, decides.

coffered

The one who stood guard Was dangerous and watchful, warden of that trove Buried under earth: no easy bargain Would be made in that place by any man.

thwarted

To shake with terror…………..in shock The wretch……………………………. ………………………..panicked and ran Away with the precious………………….

There was no way Beowulf could manage to get the better Of the monster with his sword. Wiglaf sits At Beowulf’s side, the son of Weohstan,

Die than live a life of shame.”

From the young warrior to the ones who had been cowards.

Much as he wanted to, there was no way He could preserve his lord’s life on earth

Big and brave as they may have been, Few who would have held out if they had had to face The outpourings of that poison-breather

pyre

How easily treasure Buried in the ground, gold hidden However skillfully, can escape from any man!

Now is the time when I would have wanted To bestow this armor on my own son, 2730 Had it been my fortune to have fathered an heir And live on in his flesh. For fifty years I ruled this nation. No king Of any neighboring clan would dare Face me with troops, none had the power To intimidate me. I took what came,

Beowulf spoke: in spite of his wounds, Mortal wounds, he still spoke For he well knew his days in the world Had been lived out to the end: his allotted time Was drawing to a close, death was very near.

noble son of Weohstan Saw the king in danger at his side And displayed his inborn bravery and strength. He left the head alone, but his fighting hand Was burned when he came to his kinsman’s aid. He lunged at the enemy lower down So that his decorated sword sank into its belly 2700 And the flames grew weaker. Once again the king Gathered his strength and drew a stabbing knife He carried on his belt, sharpened for battle. He stuck it deep into the dragon’s flank. Beowulf dealt it a deadly wound. They had killed the enemy, courage quelled his life;

When he yielded a sword, No matter how blooded and hard-edged the blade His hand was too strong, the stroke he dealt (I have heard) would ruin it. He could reap no advantage.

reap

I shall stand by you.”

Sad at heart, addressing his companions, Wiglaf spoke wise and fluent words:

furled

flashed and slashed