Frivolity, mindless fun; wasting time;not being able to question and besceptical; lack of a timetable andproper structure.

To know where something fits in tooverall ideas and concepts; analysisand logic; being stretched; abstractconcepts; structure and clarity. Enjoysystems and seeing the connectionsof one idea to another; ask how anassertion is supported by researchthen ask questions about the qualityof the research.

Being hurtled from one activity toanother, having no time to think;crammed timetables; lack of privacy,no time to prepare.

Time to think, observe, take it all infirst; love to watch others; needsome solitude and above all, time.Like to ponder before speaking.Need to read and consider beforegiving a judgement.

Sitting around for too long; workingalone; theorizing; having to listen toothers droning on; having to wait along time to see results.

Doing and experiencing. Enjoygames, practical activities, anythingthat’s new, energetic and involving,will take risks and volunteer to takethe lead even when they don’tunderstand the implications of doingso. Natural optimists.

I hear and I forgetI see and I rememberI do and I understand.

The essence of learning

intelligences, not just EQ – Emotional Intelligence as popularized by DanielGoleman10 – but many more including Linguistic, Musical, Bodily-Kinaesthetic and Spatial. Knowing in which category or categories your cur-riculum belongs is an intriguing and useful line of inquiry

Since then, the American social psychologist HowardGardner has offered us the attractive idea that there are actually multiple

engaging people, trusting them and giving them autonomy. Praise is moreeffective than criticism as a way to lead.

‘Theory Y’ leaders believe the opposite: that work is natural and that wework best when we take responsibility for ourselves. Creativity and play areimportant for problem-solving and the only way to do this is through

When you apply this to the classroom, it is possible to see that early masseducation was largely a Theory X process. Iron discipline with harsh pun-ishment for disobedience was the rule. Rote learning was the main teachingtechnique. Facts and not emotions were the focus, there were right and wronganswers and teaching was about talking, not about listening.

Management thinking has much to offer teaching and learning. Oneastoundingly simple idea about motivation that has stood the test of time isDouglas McGregor’s X–Y theory.9 It is usually described in terms of man-agement style, but since as a teacher you are also a manager – of a classroom –I believe it is highly relevant. People who lead, manage or teach using ‘TheoryX’ assumptions believe that human beings cannot be trusted to work. Theybelieve that we will avoid responsibility and effort if we can, therefore wemust be controlled, directed, manipulated, force-fed and punished for dis-obedience.

Motivation

Ageing

When that worked, why did it work? What didn’t work and whatmight explain it? What do I need to be aware of? What may I beconcealing from myself about what I don’t know? Where might Iexperiment even further? Where is the leading edge in my field?Who is challenging my own accepted ideas?

There are dangers in reaching Level 4. One might be that of believing that youknow everything anyone could ever need to know in this area. Another mightbe the danger of slipping into a habit of under-preparing for what previouslyseemed like an immense challenge.I like the idea that Level 5 should be what we might call Thinking Com-petence. At Level 5 you are aware that your competence may be at risk ofoutdated-ness. You are conscious of the ever-present danger of complacency.You ask yourself,

It does indeed feel clunky and unnaturalbecause it is clunky and unnatural. Tell your learners, again, that this is allpart of the expected scheme of things. Reassure them that it will get better.The key to success at this phase is to take it steadily, to follow the protocols, tolearn each phase of whatever it is and to be patient about lapses because theyare inevitable. One danger here is that as confidence begins to grow, the olddefault mode of Level 1 may begin to assert itself. Closely observed feedback isthe key to averting this disaster. Many adults want to skip the discomforts ofthis phase. They want instant competence. In many cases this is an illusion,so beware of colluding with it.

Managing change

Another possible explanation is that potential conflict is involved when anadult comes forward for learning. As adults we already have certain well-developed ideas about life along with our own systems and beliefs. To admitthat we need to learn something new is to admit that there is somethingwrong with our present system. Many people, though they may perceive thatthey do need new skills or knowledge, feel so threatened by the challenge totheir previous beliefs that they are unable to learn

Memories of school

Anxiety

In the learner’s mind

Challenge to beliefs

Rather than remembering wonderful lessons, it is far more likely that youwill immediately remember your part in a particular school play, a project, atrip abroad, an experiment you successfully concluded on your own, theachievement of some sporting feat – all of them active pieces of learningwhere you were at the centre of the effort. From three years’ study of historyat university, my mind has wiped most dates, wars, monarchs and all theessays and lectures that went into recording them. If asked, for instance, as Ihave been by a homework-doing child, why William of Normandy invadedEngland, and why the industrial revolution started, I could not give acoherent response to either. Yet I can still recall much of the detail of a projectin my final year at university when, as a special privilege, we were allowed toresearch and write up a subject of our choice.

1 Adult learners: what you needto know

Free Choice

Interpretation also has significant implications for the non-formal educator as way of informing practice, or in this case as an interpreter. As a form of practice, it is referred to by Tilden (2007) as a form of provocation with the intent to reveal the larger truth be-hind any statement or fact. The interpreter's role in a majestic natu-ral park, for example, is to stimulate visitors' thinking so they re-flect and thoughtfully recognize the significance of the beauty before them, instead of haphazardly and/or unknowingly overlooking the significance of what stands before them. He defines interpretation as "an educational activity, which aims to reveal meanings and rela-tionships through the use of original objects, by first-hand experi-ence, and by illustrative media, rather than simply to communicate factual information" (Tilden, 2007, p. 33).

Interpretation is a concept that explains what visitors and edu-cators do as they spend time in museums, zoos, libraries, and other cultural institutions. From the visitors' perspective, interpretation re-veals the process of meaning-making as individuals encounter ob-jects in response to an inherent need for understanding. Rooted in hermeneutics, interpretation explains a relationship (verbal, tacitly,

and somatically) between the visitor or learner and the object. It is "where meaning is modified as further relationships are encoun-tered. The encounter between an individual subject and the object is influenced by prior experience and knowledge" (Hooper-Greenfield, 2000, p. 117). In essence, interpretation explains how both the edu-cator and the visitor make meaning of an object that has some value or interest to them.

Interpretation

Rogers (2004, 2005) says that discussing nonformal education as a concept and practice is important because it reminds educators that there are other educational means and opportunities outside the formal sys-tem, with the potential to promote activism and educational reform. He offers a new perspective of nonformal education, where it is placed not in opposition to other categories of education, but on a continuum located in relationship to other categories. This allows for educational programs ( e.g., museums, literacy groups, public schools) to be placed anywhere on the continuum based on the de-gree they reflect the characteristics of a particular category. Figure 2.1 shows four key concepts that make up the continuum of educa-tion: formal education, nonformal education, participatory educa-tion, and informal learning.

The more contextualized a program, the more it is personalized to local and individual needs and interests. The less contextualized, the greater degree of stan-dardization, such as in formal groups. For example, the curriculum in a college science course is the same regardless of who partici-pates. As an educational program becomes more flexible and par-ticipatory (moving to the right on the continuum), it is more respon-sive to the specific context and becomes less standardized and more receptive to engaging local interest and needs.

A Continuum Perspective

nonformal education is seen as a supplement to the formal system, one which is designed to address needs of developing nations.

Using these conceptual tools, Brennan identifies three types of nonformal education. The first type is seen as a complement to the formal system by addressing needs that are not adequately met by the formal system ( e.g., school dropouts, adult literacy). A sec-ond type is seen as an alternative to the formal system that seeks to recognize indigenous education. "Indigenous education and learner refer to structures and practices that existed before colonization and continued to exist in some form for some features of personal and community life after colonization" (p. 187). The third type of

An Integrated Perspective

The literature of nonformal education is a product of three different but related groups. The first group, though less prolific but much more active, includes the actual practitioners of nonformal education who are directly involved in helping the marginalized and impoverished individuals in the world through programs in lit-eracy, consumer education, farmer education, family planning, for example. The second group /is the international educational plan-ners who question the capability of the formal education system to make a difference developmentally in the world. These develop-ment specialists have seen firsthand the inadequacies of the formal system of education in undeveloped countries. A final group is made up of the critics of the formal system, such as Freire and Illich, who writing from a social justice perspective. They see the formal sys-tem as reproducing the status quo, further embedding marginalized people in oppressive structures of society, and nonformal education as a means for liberation and social justice

ORIGINS

N onformal education. This is any non-school learning where both the source and the learner have a conscious intent to pro-mote learning.

RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER FORMS OF EDUCATION

DEFINITIONS

CHAPTER2

CHAPTER 1

At this point, it may be argued that due to the nature of the term or category that further work is not warranted in this area. In other words, nonformal education as a concept and idea does not adequately capture the educational complexity associated with the breadth of educational settings and practices that are taking place outside the formal system.

At this point, even though participation of adults most likely far surpasses what goes on in formal settings, it is mind-boggling to begin to try to make sense of the level of participation, the range of content, and the various teaching approaches that are engaged in on any given weekend or evening in a nonformal setting.

It is seen as providing an alternative educational medium for populations that have been overlooked or underserved by formal systems, most often associated with international development pro-grams. In developed countries nonformal education is often located in more public settings and has received little attention within the field, particularly within North America.

WHAT IS NONFORMAL EDUCATION?

Fasted cardio has not been shown to have any significant detriment either. Therefore, if you find that getting your cardio done first thing in the morning is an enjoyable and proactive way to get you energized for the day, then doing cardio on an empty stomach is perfectly reasonable.

It’s also worth noting that while fasted cardio may not have any additional benefits in terms of overall fat loss, it may have special application in the case of so-called “stubborn fat. ”

With this in mind, we recommend that you perform cardio whenever it best fits your schedule or at a time that will allow you to be consistent with the protocol.

cool down. An example of a LISS session would be walking on an incline treadmill for 30 minutes at a moderate pace. There are pros and cons with each.

In bodybuilding coaching circles, we generally split cardio into two groups based on intensity: Low Intensity Steady State (or LISS) and High Intensity Interval Training (or HIIT). An example of an HIIT session would be repeating 20-second all out sprints on a stationary bike for six times. Each sprint would be spaced with 40 seconds to two minutes of light cycling at a low intensity. This HIIT session would only last 10-20 minutes, including a light warm up and

While it will depend on the individual, we generally recommend keeping formal cardio sessions within the five sessions per week range.

CHAPTER 12

WHEN TO EAT POST-WORKOUT

A second objective of post-workout nutrition is to replenish glycogen stores. While it is unlikely that glycogen stores will be significantly depleted, assuming the pre- and intra-workout guidelines have been followed, ensuring full glycogen replenishment becomes more important if you are training multiple times per day or if you train the same muscle group on consecutive days such as when following a high frequency full body split.

HOW MUCH TO EAT INTRA-WORKOUT

WHAT TO EAT INTRA-WORKOUT

It has been three to five hours since your pre-workout meal.

Your workouts are longer than 60 minutes.• You train on an empty stomach (fasted).

If none of the following considerations apply, an intra-workout feeding is not needed at all.

All subjects lightly salted their meals to improve electrolyte balance. You may notice that Subject 2 included a larger serving of salt, despite being the smallest person. This

increase in salt is indented to optimize the sodium-potassium (Na+:K+) ratio of the meal. Subject 2 consumed sweet potato, which is extremely rich in potassium. When eating meals high in potassium, salting the meal slightly more liberally is acceptable.

Generally, we suggest eating 30-120 minutes before training, depending on your schedule, preferences and what you find provides the best energy while lifting.

WHEN SHOULD THE PRE-WORKOUT MEAL BE EATEN?

We also recommend consuming fiber in moderation in the pre-workout meal. To avoid interference with nutrient absorption and unnecessary bloating, fiber should be kept around 5-15 grams in the preworkout meal as a ballpark estimate. The further away your training session is, the more fiber you can get away with and even utilize as a tool in your favor. The sooner your training session is, the less fiber you should consume.

HOW MANY CARBS TO EAT PRE-WORKOUT

Remember the three different monosaccharides (simple sugars) we discussed earlier (glucose, fructose and galactose)? Well, these three sugars each use different transporters to get them from the digestive tract into the bloodstream where they can be used for energy.The main reason why it’s smart to include carbohydrates that utilize multiple transporters is that they will provide a more sustainable and consistent energy source throughout a training session (52). In other words, if you simply consume one type of carbohydrate, you will only be able to utilize one transporter for absorption. If you consume two (or more) types of carbohydrates, you will be able to utilize several different transporters that funnel the carbs through at different rates. This will result in a much more efficient influx of carbohydrates

CHAPTER 11

CHAPTER 10

or some fats before hitting the hay.

For this reason, we recommend consuming both a high quality and high quantity of protein before bed so as to maximize your muscle building and recovery potential as you sleep. You can slow the digestion rate of the pre-bed meal by simply eating more protein, choosing a slower-digesting protein such as casein or steak and/or by adding a serving of vegetables

With that said, physiologically speaking, different protein sources and food combinations will have different rates of digestion, which can impact when they are most ideally consumed.

INTERMITTENT FASTING

calculating the leucine content of every meal would be annoying and impractical, so the best approach would be to evenly distribute his total protein goal of 240 grams per day across five meals. In doing so, he gets about 48 grams of protein per meal and is pretty much guaranteed to maximize the muscle protein synthetic response each time.

With this information in mind, let’s have a look at the graph below comparing multiple food sources and how much of each would be necessary to consume 2.5 grams of Leucine.

Dr. Phillips reported that 0.045 grams of leucine per kilogram of body weight (0.0205g/lb) per meal is the amount needed to optimize muscle protein synthesis (99). For example, if you weigh 170 pounds (~77kg), you would need about 3.5 grams of leucine per meal to maximize the protein synthetic response. If you weigh 125 pounds (~55kg), you would need about 2.5 grams of leucine per meal to maximize the MPS response. For this person, 2.5 grams of leucine could be referred to as her leucine threshold.

What people really mean when they ask this question is, “How much protein can be used in a single meal for building muscle?” In order to answer this question, we need to look at what the scientific evidence has to say.

2. PROTEIN DISTRIBUTION: HOW SHOULD WE SPACE OUT OUR PROTEIN THROUGHOUT THE DAY?

Vegan Protein Powder (Rice + Pea Blends)Soy Protein IsolateSeaweed, Spirulina

PROTEIN SOURCES LIST:Whey ProteinEggsEgg WhitesMeat (Chicken, Beef, Pork, Turkey, Elk, Game, etc)Fish (all kinds)Dairy (i.e. yogurt, cheese)

WHY ARE BCAA’S SO POPULAR & WHAT PURPOSE DO THEY SERVE?

But before we get ahead of ourselves in discussing the makeup of protein, how quality varies from food source to food source and the nitty gritty of muscle protein synthesis, let’s take a glimpse at the nine essential amino acids.

CHAPTER 09

As noted above, a strong relationship between body fat percentage and insulin resistance has been demonstrated in the scientific literature (21,36,45,68,84,87). This implies that those who carry more body fat have a decreased ability to utilize carbohydrates efficiently.

HOW MUCH CARBOHYDRATE SHOULD WE EAT FOR RECOMP?

HOW MUCH FAT SHOULD WE EAT FOR RECOMP?

Of course, dietary fat serves many purposes in the human body apart from being stored as adipose tissue, including regulating many metabolic processes, playing a large role in hormonal production, and enabling our bodies to absorb and utilize certain vitamins (A, D, E, & K). Because of the many metabolic pathways that depend on fat availability, it is much more likely that fat-phobia will hinder your body recomposition goals rather than help them. We imagine that something as simple as changing the terminology from dietary fat to dietary lipids and from body fat to adipose tissue might help shift this negative connotation.

LOW FAT? LOW CARB? OR NEITHER?

WHAT THE SCIENCE REALLY SAYS

OUR SLIDING MODEL FOR PROTEIN INTAKE

If you consume too little, you could be leaving potential gains on the table and missing out on fat loss, just because you didn’t want to eat an extra chicken breast or protein shake. In this sense, we think of having a high protein intake as a sort of anabolic insurance. It covers you in a similar way as car insurance in that you may not necessarily need it, but it’s a good idea to have it just in case.

HOW MUCH PROTEIN SHOULD WE EAT FOR RECOMP?

CHAPTER 07

CHAPTER 06

Since a linear approach to calories and macros is the simplest approach, it is likely attractive to those who find adhering to the diet easier without having extra variables to worry about from day to day. This would mean that on training days, non-training days, the weekends, et cetera, you would have the same daily calorie and macro target to hit.

SURVEY: Glance over the headings in the chapter to see the few big points that will be developed. Also read the final summary paragraph if the chapter has one. This survey should not take more than a minute or two and will show the main ideas around which the discussion will cluster. This will help you organize the ideas as you read them later.

C o n c l u s i o n

absolutes, and the idea of a totality in which all differences are finallyreconciled. But such a pluralism demands an openness to what isdifferent and other, a willingness to risk one’s pre-judgments, seek-ing for common ground without any guarantees that it will be found.It demands—and it is a strenuous demand—that one tries to beresponsive to the claims of the other” (p. 271).

One way to sum up much of what has already been said is to con-sider what Richard Bernstein (1988) has called engaged pluralism.To see why we find this idea helpful for understanding the discus-sion process, consider the following quote regarding the require-ments of an engaged, pluralistic stance: “One accepts the fallibilityof all inquiry. One accepts the multiplicity of perspectives andinterpretations. One rejects the quest for certainty, the craving for

In a sense this final disposition brings us back full circle. If demo-cratic classrooms seek to promote individual and collective growth,then people who retain the courage, strength, and resolve to holdto an opinion not widely shared by others should be given theirdue. Autonomy usually denotes a state of being separate and alooffrom others and a corresponding dismissal of collaboration, coop-eration, and joint deliberation. We want to understand and honorautonomy as a temporary state, a kind of “provisional resting place”(Barber, 1994) where an individual can claim that “this is what Ibelieve in and stand for at this particular point in time.” But thatsame individual should also be willing to subject those convictionsto continuous reevaluation and possible revision, on the under-standing that these new convictions may, in Barber’s words, be“repossessed” again in the future.Without individuals who are willing to take strong stands andto argue assertively for them, democracy is diminished, and theopportunities for growth and self-development, partly dependenton the clash of contending wills, are greatly weakened.

Hope also implies what Dewey (1955, 1991) called democraticfaith. Faith suggests that people have the capacity to work throughtheir own problems and that each person has something worth-while and important to contribute to increasing understanding orto resolving conflict. Democratic faith implies that pooling the tal-ents and abilities of individuals increases the likelihood that newlight will be cast on old difficulties and everyday common sense willbe brought to bear on problems said to require technical expertise.

Burbules (1993) mentions appreciation briefly as one of a numberof important “emotional” factors in dialogue (p. 39). Few of us takeenough opportunities in everyday life to express appreciation toone another for a thoughtful comment, a powerful insight, or awise observation. Because democratic classrooms stress respect,mutuality, and civility, a logical extension of these notions is find-ing space and time to express our appreciation to one another.When a helpful observation clarifies a key point or an intriguingcomment excites further curiosity, the disposition of appreciationinclines us to express our gratitude openly and honestly. Like manyof the attitudes already mentioned, appreciation brings peoplecloser together and raises the level of trust. But even more impor-tant, openly expressing our appreciation for one another engen-ders a kind of joyous collaboration that is characteristic of the mostproductive and most democratic of communities.

Our experience may be unique, but it is fairly consistent. Wehave been forced to conclude that the kind of teaching we are try-ing to do probably requires an entire academic year of regularmeetings, rather than the fairly standard single semester. We con-cede that we must do more to hold our students to a higher delib-erative standard earlier in the semester, but we know that imposingthis standard too early is risky. It may prevent the emergence of thekind of trust and mutual respect that form such an important foun-dation for honest and engaged discussion. Margery Osborne (1992)describes this dilemma nicely: “The first few meetings of the classare, for me, filled with tension between creating a place where ideascan be safely aired and questioned and creating a place where wecan push, confront, and challenge one another’s ideas” (p. 108).

Mutuality means that it is in the interest of all to care as muchabout each other’s self-development as one’s own. We demonstratemutuality when we muster all the resources we can to ensure thatall participants benefit from the discussion. When we act withmutuality, we realize that our own flourishing depends in a vitalsense on the flourishing of all others. This commitment to othersnot only generates a spirit of goodwill and generosity but alsoenhances trust.

is partly the result of a kind of pedagogical compulsiveness to give thestudents their money’s worth, but it is also a consequence of teach-ers’ viewing their own ideas as superior to and more urgent than theideas of their students. We have come to realize that group cohe-siveness and the give-and-take of a good discussion are usually more important than any particular thing that we feel compelled tocontribute.

We have found Kingwell’s discussion of tact particularly helpfulin our own teaching. Teachers, including the two of us, have a ten-dency to insist on saying all the things they want to say without regardfor the group as a whole or the needs of individual participants. This

A component of mindfulness is what political theorist MarkKingwell (1995) calls tact. Kingwell argues that when we share pub-lic space, we must curb our compulsion to convey our own moralvision in order to make room for others to receive a full hearing.Tact sometimes involves holding in check our desire to expressourselves fully and vociferously. It doesn’t mean compromising ourprinciples or remaining quiet at all times; a tactful person may doa fair amount of talking. But it does oblige us to pay close atten-tion to what others have said and not said and to defer to thosewho have had few opportunities to speak.

In The Good Society, Robert Bellah and his colleagues (1991) arguethat “democracy means paying attention” (p. 254). Paying closeattention to another’s words is no small feat. It calls “on all of ourresources of intelligence, feeling, and moral sensitivity” (p. 254). Asin Hans-Georg Gadamer’s notion of dialogue (1989), paying closeattention in this manner causes us to lose ourselves, to become com-pletely absorbed in hearing out what someone else has to say. Thepaying of attention is what we mean by mindfulness. It involvesbeing aware of the whole conversation—of who has spoken andwho has not—and of doing what one can to ensure that the dis-cussion doesn’t get bogged down in the consideration of issues thatare of concern only to a very small minority of participants.

Inseparable from participation is the notion of efficacy—thesense that one’s participation matters, that it is having an impacton others. Political philosopher Carol Pateman (1970) has writteneloquently about this with respect to industrial democracy, but itis just as important in classrooms. The incentive to participatediminishes when what one says or contributes is ignored or leavesno discernible impact. Everyone in democratic classrooms, butespecially the instructor, must work at encouraging widespread par-ticipation and finding spaces during class time to receive morethan just perfunctory responses from the class. For us this meansthat we must in some cases ask follow-up questions, at other timesrephrase what has been said, and in still other situations showclearly and assertively how one person’s contribution is related toother ideas already presented.

We are quite aware of the students in our classes who are con-sistently quiet (see Chapter Nine), and often we speak to them pri-vately to find out what we can do to help them participate moreactively. Sometimes they say that they prefer to remain silent andthat they are otherwise satisfied with the class. Such students, how-ever, often become much more animated when the class breaks upinto small groups. Knowing that many students are uncomfortablespeaking in a large group has led us to organize small group inter-actions for our students much more often than in the past.

We don’t want to suggest that everyone has to speak during the dis-cussion, though it is desirable if many people do so. What is essen-tial is that everyone finds ways to contribute to others’understanding. Sometimes this happens through speech, some-times through such alternative media as written assignments andjournal entries, informal exchanges during breaks, electronic mail,and even personal communications with the instructor.

t is essential, by the way, thatwe do everything that we ask the students to do. We thereforespend some class time relating our own personal histories. We alsodevote one of the initial classes to a presentation of some of ourown views on key educational issues and follow this presentationwith a critique of these views. We hope to show in this way thatevery view is subject to criticism but that this can be done withrespect and dignity.

to participate. The conviviality and congeniality that prevailencourage people to take risks and to reveal strongly held opin-ions. We try to create a hospitable atmosphere in our classes bydevoting a good part of the first class or two to giving studentsopportunities to talk and write autobiographically and by suggest-ing (while trying hard not to be too intrusive) that they share some-thing important about themselves.

Parker Palmer writes about hospitality as one of the foundationsfor good dialogue in his book To Know as We Are Known (1993). Byhospitality he means an atmosphere in which people feel invited

P r a c t i c i n g t h e D i s p o s i t i o n s o f D e m o c r a t i c D i s c u s s i o n

M a k i n g D i s c u s s i o n C r i t i c a l

Discussion is an important way for people to affiliate with oneanother, to develop the sympathies and skills that make participa-tory democracy possible. It is, as James Dillon (1994) has said, “agood way for us to be together” (p. 112) so that we can share per-sonal stories of triumph and trouble and stretch our capacity forempathizing with others. In telling our stories, we employ differ-ent forms of speech to stimulate and move others, to emote andexpress strong feelings, and simply to celebrate the joys of comingtogether.

A major influence on Rorty is the English philosopher MichaelOakeshott (1962), who characterizes group talk as an “unrehearsedintellectual adventure” (p. 198) in which as many participants as

possible are invited to speak and acknowledge one another.Despite the inevitable and irreconcilable differences betweenthem, the act of conversation allows them to emerge from theexperience broadened and enriched. For Oakeshott, participationin conversation is a distinctively human activity. Becoming skillfulat this involves us in discerning how each voice reflects a differentset of human interests. Through the process of discernment onebecomes more sensitized to neglected or discounted voices and tofinding room for them to air their views. In Oakeshott’s view, con-versation is one of the most important ways for human beings tomake meaning, to construct a worldview, and to provide a “meet-ingplace of various modes of imagining” (p. 206).

David Bridges (1988) claims that discussion is different fromconversation and other forms of group talk by its “concern withthe development of knowledge, understanding or judgementamong those taking par” (p. 17). He believes that discussion ismore serious than conversation in that it requires the participantsto be both “mutually responsive” to the different views expressedand disposed to be “affected by opinions one way or another in so far as (on some criteria) they merit acceptance or approval” (p. 15). Similarly, James Dillon (1994) argues that whereas con-versation is aimless, carefree, and effortless, discussion, in his view,is highly “disciplined and concerted talk” (p. 13) in which peoplecome together to resolve some issue or problem that is importantto them.

Educational philosopher Nicholas Burbules (1993),while less inclined than Lipman to distinguish sharply betweenconversation and dialogue, suggests that conversation is moreinformal and less structured than dialogue and that dialoguefocuses more on inquiry and increasing understanding and tendsto be more exploratory and questioning than conversation.

an exploration or inquiry in which the participants view themselvesas collaborators intent on expeditiously resolving the problem orissue they face

Certain authors who agree about the potential of group talk haveattempted to make distinctions among conversation, discussion,and dialogue. The philosopher Matthew Lipman (1991) arguesthat conversation seeks equilibrium, with each person in turn tak-ing opportunities to speak and then listen but where little or nomovement occurs. Conversation, Lipman claims, is an exchangeof thoughts and feelings in which genial cooperation prevails,whereas dialogue aims at disequilibrium in which “each argumentevokes a counterargument that pushes itself beyond the other andpushes the other beyond itself” (p. 232). Dialogue for Lipman is

B l e n d i n g D i s c u s s i o n , D i a l o g u e , a n d C o n v e r s a t i o n

But we do not prize discussion solely because it helps us attainworthy democratic aims. We practice it eagerly simply because it’sso enjoyable and exciting. Unpredictable and risky, it is the peda-gogical and educational equivalent of scaling a mountain or shoot-ing dangerous rapids. Never sure what we’ll encounter as we pushtoward the top or as we careen around the next bend, our level ofalertness and attentiveness remains high. Indeed, there is an exhil-aration that we experience in the best of discussions that is notunlike the thrill we enjoy in the most challenging of outdoor activ-ities. This is why we like teaching democratically

is-cussion is one of the best ways to nurture growth because it ispremised on the idea that only through collaboration and coop-eration with others can we be exposed to new points of view. Thisexposure increases our understanding and renews our motivationto continue learning. In the process, our democratic instincts areconfirmed: by giving the floor to as many different participants aspossible, a collective wisdom emerges that would have been impos-sible for any of the participants to achieve on their own

This vignette demonstrates why we place such store in discus-sion as a teaching method. As Steve’s experience illustrates, dis-cussion is a valuable and inspiring means for revealing the diversityof opinion that lies just below the surface of almost any complexissue. Although there are many ways to learn, discussion is a par-ticularly wonderful way to explore supposedly settled questions andto develop a fuller appreciation for the multiplicity of human expe-rience and knowledge. To see a topic come alive as diverse andcomplex views multiply is one of the most powerful experienceswe can have as learners and teachers. In a discussion where par-ticipants feel their views are valued and welcomed, it is impossibleto predict how many contrasting perspectives will emerge or howmany unexpected opinions will arise.

DISCUSSION IN A DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY

CHAPTER ONE

The definition of a model is a simplified expla-nation of a complex process. With that in mind, below is my model of teacher development. Based on the Kolb Learning Cycle, this model recognizes the importance of reflecting on per-sonal experience to developing expertise.

Students will never take an assignment more seriously than the teacher does. Show students that you’re working hard and they’ll work harder, too.

You teach the way you learn. If you learn best by reading, you’re likely to give your students too much reading. If you learn best by doing, you may not put enough big-picture perspective into your curriculum. Be aware of this tendency. Your job is to teach every student, not just those who learn the same way you do.

The “student’s” perspective in the title isn’t a typo. My inten-tion is to try to see things the way each individual student does, and to tailor my class to each student’s needs.

Foundations of Teaching

I was teaching my class about the 1912 Bread and Roses Strike when one of my students, an older, handsome Cuban immigrant of African descent, told us about labor protests in Japanese factories after World War II. Rather than strike, workers actually sped up the production line. This gener-ated a surplus of finished goods that was costly to ware-house and embarrassing for plant managers to explain to their superiors. Being of Japanese descent myself, I appre-ciated how intensely Japanese this mode of protests was. The student mentioned that he studied this in Moscow, where he trained to be an air force radar technician in the Cuban military.

My students have told me where you can buy a fake Social Security card in Oakland and what life is like in a refugee camp in Thailand. They’ve told me about underground clubs and high school race riots. My adults students have taught me more about my city and the rest of the world than I could have learned in a hundred lifetimes.

So work hard. You may be teaching the next Marie Curie or Rosa Parks right now.

I believe that How to Teach Adults is the first, best book for anyone who cares about the subject.

In my attempts to improve my teaching practice, I’ve learned that there are few books about how to teach adults, and all of them have their niche: Teaching college students, teaching writing, teaching tennis... I have yet to find a book simply about teaching adults. So I spent three years writing my own.

Introduction

In The Use of the Self, Alexander noted that “…knowledge concerned with sensory experience cannot be conveyed by the written or spoken word, so that it means to the recipient what it means to the person who is trying to convey it.”

Movement into that void–across what William Stafford called “…that precious little area of confusion when I do not know what I am going to say and then I find out what I am going to say” note4–will occur only when we release ourselves into motion, not when we prepare to do so.

All of us can write freely, spontaneously, and continuously, if we simply stop ourselves from stopping. When we write without stopping ourselves, we are using what Elbow has called our ‘freewriting muscle’–an ability to co-ordinate language, thought, and physical movement without interference. Like the ‘primary control,’ this ‘muscle’ is what always allows writing to happen, if it happens at all, even if we habitually use this ability with self-consciousness, hesitation, confusion, or fear.

Awareness of these connections was a revelation to me, because an unwritten canon of the university suggests that we should attend to language and thought in our work and pay attention to the body elsewhere–at the health club, perhaps–or ignore it altogether until it cries out in pain. As a consequence, there are whole realms of information we routinely disregard–information not only about the use of our bodies, but also about the interactive qualities of our presence, our effects upon others, and their effects upon us.

If I got up and moved around, breaking the circle, a subtle tension would often break as well, and we could talk more easily with one another. When our presence in the classroom became more lively and open, student writing became more lively and open too: more directly and fully voiced. I still can’t explain how these connections between language and movement work, and I can’t really control them. I simply know that they are always working, for better or worse, with unfathomable complexity.

b. If you lost weight from week one to week two: i. Assuming you need about a 500 calorie deficit per day to lose one pound of weight, you can determine maintenance by figuring out how much of a deficit you were in.

Another option you can use to estimate your maintenance calories is a guess-and-check method. The steps include: 1. Track your bodyweight and caloric intake every day for two weeks 2. Determine the average values for week one and week two. 3. Determine the average weight gained or lost from week one to week two. 4. Determine maintenance based off weight change. a. If you maintained weight from week one to week two, then whatever your average caloric intake was can be set as your maintenance calories.

The above formulas are used to estimate your basal metabolic rate: how many calories you’d burn per day if you did nothing. However, to accurately determine maintenance calories, we also need an estimate of how many calories you’re burning per day through activity (both exercise and NEAT). We estimate this by using the “activity multipliers” laid out in Table 5B below.

ESTIMATING THEORETICAL MAINTENANCE

If you decide that this exception applies to you, you may want to increase the recommended calorie surplus by 5-10 percent, especially as a beginner-intermediate, so as to maximize on your muscular potential.

EXCEPTIONS

Table 5A condenses all of the information laid out above into a framework for application. To find the caloric target for your situation, simply determine your primary goal, current body composition and experience level. Keep in mind that this table, while very comprehensive, will not capture every possible scenario and that there will be some exceptions, which we will describe next.

HITTING YOUR TARGET

You may think of this like a 900 pound polar bear losing weight during hibernation season - a time of both inactivity and starvation. Once the bear resumes normal eating again, she quickly regains that lost body mass as both muscle and fat. It takes years for a bear to reach their full adult size, but after losing a significant amount of weight/mass during hibernation, it is able to get back to its full grown “physique” in just a few short months.

we get back to training again, myonuclei that were built months or years ago can now start cranking out commands to ramp up the production of new muscle much faster than if you had never trained in the past.

When we weight train and cause muscle fibers to grow in size (hypertrophy), we also increase the number of nuclei (myonuclei) in the muscle (34). You can think of myonuclei as the control center of the muscle fiber. Even though the muscle fiber itself loses size (atrophy) when we skip the gym for too long, these control centers (myonuclei) are never lost (23). As soon as

THE DETRAINEE. Body recomposition is extremely common for those who previously resistance trained, built a lot of muscle, but later stopped resistance training for an extended period of time and ended up losing muscle as a result.

CALORIE INTAKE: HOW MANY CALORIES SHOULD I EAT?

CHAPTER 05

METABOLISM DEMYSTIFIED

Protein is the most thermogenic macronutrient. This means eating a higher protein diet will result in more calories burned because it requires more energy to digest and absorb that protein. This is one of the many reasons why high protein diets typically result in greater fat loss and better improvements in body composition, even when caloric intakes are equated.

It’s important to understand that each macronutrient provides us with a different amount of energy (calories), as seen in the chart below, and each macronutrient differs from a thermogenic standpoint.

Thermogenesis. NEAT can vary greatly between individuals, directly impacting the number of calories they burn through daily physical activity (77). High levels of NEAT is advantageous from a fat loss perspective and is believed to be largely responsible for the massive differences in total metabolic rate we see.

The calories burned from these non-exercise activities make up NEAT: Non-Exercise Activity

BELOW ARE THE MIFFLIN ST. JEOR FORMULA FOR MALES & FEMALES:BMR = 10 x weight(kg) + 6.25 x height(cm) - 5 x age(y) + 5 (man)BMR = 10 x weight(kg) + 6.25 x height(cm) - 5 x age(y) - 161 (woman)

For those of you who like math and objective numbers, we recommend using the Mifflin St. Jeor formula (below) to calculate your BMR. As you can see, this formula takes four variables into consideration: gender, age, height and weight. However, there are additional variables that are not, and can not be accounted for. This is one reason why this formula is very good, but not perfect.

BMR typically accounts for 50-70 percent of your daily energy needs.

Your BMR is essentially how many calories your body burns per day in order to perform all of its basic metabolic functions and maintain its body mass at rest.

CHAPTER 04

THE POWER OF BELIEF

MEANWHILE, BACK AT THE LAB

Because fat tissue and muscle tissue are separate systems, it’s perfectly possible to lose a significant amount of fat due to the caloric deficit, while still building muscle from the progressive training stimulus (and sufficient protein).

DEPOSITING AND WITHDRAWING

In other words, if your goal is to simply lose weight, then you simply need to focus on eating fewer calories and/or burning more calories. If your goal is to simply gain weight, then you need to simply focus on eating more calories and/or burning fewer calories. But since you’re reading this book, it’s probably safe to assume that what you really want is to lose fat and gain muscle, not to merely lose or gain weight.

CHAPTER 03

The more experience you have with tracking, the more flexible you can be and the better job you’ll likely do at estimating your food intake. If you don’t have much experience with tracking, we recommend doing your best to be as accurate as possible until you gain more general nutritional IQ.

We highly recommend you use a food scale when possible rather than using volumetric tools such as a measuring cup.

It’s worth mentioning that you do not need to track everything you eat to achieve some progress. It’s fine to have periods of time where you choose not to track macros and will still be able to make progress by ball parking intake mentally, paying close attention to internal signals (hunger/appetite) and being consistent with food choices (eating meals of similar size and composition day to day)

This may seem counterintuitive to some. The leaner you currently are, the more likely you are to see noticeable changes in your progress photos. For example, if you are a 250 pound male at 30 percent body fat, chances are you won’t look much different if you were to lose five pounds of body fat. Conversely, someone who weighs 160 pounds at 10 percent body fat, will look much leaner after losing five pounds of body fat. As you get leaner, each pound of fat loss makes up a larger percentage of your total fat mass, making visual changes much more apparent.

Similar to the scale, realize that body part measurements are not a perfect science. For example, as you lose fat, many of these measurements may actually decrease, despite a gain in muscle to the area

For consistency purposes, we recommend tracking your body weight for four-seven days per week at the same time of day for consistency purposes.

MANDATORY TOOLS

Measuring body recomposition is a bit more tricky, however. How exactly should we do that? Well, having the number go down on the scale might hint toward fat loss, but then how are we supposed to tell if we’re gaining muscle or not?

CHAPTER 01

CHAPTER 02

To be clear, when we say body recomposition, we are referring to a reduction in body fat percentage alongside an increase in lean body mass (more specifically, muscle mass).

1. NEW LIFTERS (BEGINNERS): As we discussed above, the body is most primed for growth when weight training is still a new stimulus. To fuel the speedy muscle building process, the body can “easily” tap into body fat stores to yield impressive recomposition.2. DETRAINED LIFTERS (DETRAINEES): The detrained lifter is anyone who has lifted for a significant period of time, built a significant amount of muscle but then stopped training due to injury, lack of motivation or some other impediment to regular lifting. Similar to the new trainee, the detrainee is able to build a lot of muscle very quickly, making recomposition common. We will revisit this phenomenon later when we discuss muscle memory.3. OBESE INDIVIDUALS: Because obese individuals have a very large energy reserve (bodyfat), it’s simple enough for them to eat in a caloric deficit and still have plenty of stored energy to fuel the muscle building process. As a result, when obese individuals train, it’s common for them to build muscle and lose fat at the same time.4. ANABOLIC STEROID USERS: Using anabolic steroids puts you in a similar camp to the new trainee and the detrainee in that it allows most people to build relatively large amounts of muscle mass very quickly. Again, to fuel that speedy muscle building process, the body can tap into body fat stores, resulting in impressive recomposition.

UNDERSTANDING RECOMPOSITION

Also, because building muscle is an energetically-demanding process, and beginners have the ability to build muscle faster, calories can be pulled from stored body fat to fuel the muscle building process. This implies that newbies can achieve impressive body recomposition without paying attention to every detail of their nutrition. Recomposition is both easier and simpler for a beginner.

RECOGNIZE YOUR STARTING PLACE

If you’ve heard that you MUST be in a calorie surplus to gain muscle or that you MUST be in a calorie deficit to lose fat, you have once again been nudged towards oversimplification.

KEEP IT SIMPLE, BUT NOT TOO SIMPLE

Karenin’s sudden impulse to forgive Anna after visiting what he thought to be her deathbed is also comparable to the sublime forgiveness that Sonya is able to offer Raskolnikov in Crime and Punishment. When discussing his feelings about Anna, Karenin states, “...I saw her and forgave. And the happiness of forgiveness revealed my duty to me, I forgave her completely. I want to turn the other cheek, I want to give my shirt when my caftan is taken, and I only pray to God that He not take from me the happiness of forgiveness!” (414). Karenin’s sudden desire to forgive all wrongs and offer unconditional positive regard to his unfaithful wife resembles the fervent desire that Sonya possesses to ensure that Raskolnikov’s soul is spared and that he repents for his crimes. Both characters show a powerful desire motivated by religious sentiment to love those who have committed great sins. The difference, however, is that Sonya’s love and ability to forgive is truly boundless while Karenin’s is reliant upon the fact that he believes Anna is about to die. The anger he felt toward Anna subsides because he believes that kindness should be shown to those who are dying. Consequently, Karenin’s feelings toward Anna change once he realizes that she will continue to live and do it with Vronsky at her side.

Anna is a very different type of character in the sense that when she is first introduced to the readers in Anna Karenina, she is painted almost as an ideal woman. She is kind, graceful, beautiful, and able to quickly resolve the conflict between Dolly and her husband. She starts out as a representative of ideal womanhood by being a loyal wife and friend to those in the novel. This changes, however, once she begins to fall in love with Vronsky and reveals her dislike of her husband. As the novel progresses, Anna becomes more human as her flaws begin to manifest. Raskolnikov is introduced with all his flaws already on the table to be judged but readers watch Anna’s spiraling descent into her the depth of her insecurities and selfish desires as she sins more and more throughout the novel. Her character, however, remains compelling for the entirety of the story because of how true to life it is. Her flaws are those that can be found in a person that the reader may know personally while Raskolnikov’s flaws are more idiosyncratic.

Raskolnikov’s character when presented on its own is rather difficult to like. He is arrogant, dismissive, chaotic, and ungrateful. However, the characters that surround him including his family, best friend Razumikhin, and Sonya provide him with boundless love and forgiveness for all the aspects of his personality that could potentially make him unlikeable. They remind the readers of his positive traits and create layers to his personality that exist only with their help. It is because the readers sometimes see Raskolnikov through the eyes of his family that he remains a compelling protagonist.

In Anna Karenina, the character who is meant to function as a moral compass is less noticeable upon first glance, as the dramatic emotional and spiritual metamorphoses of the other characters in the novel may overshadow her. Dolly, the betrayed wife of Stiva, a superfluous womanizer, acts as a figure of forgiveness first for him and his crime against their marriage, but later for Anna as well. As mentioned by Gary Saul Morson in his piece Prosaics and Anna Karenina, Dolly could be considered the hero of the novel because she best exemplifies the values that Anna Karenina puts forth. It is Dolly’s ability to perfectly fulfill the duties of a wife and mother that make her the purest of all characters in the novel and therefore able to pass judgment and allot forgiveness. Dolly’s character serves as a representation of the traditional values of the cult of domesticity and ideal womanhood. She is without sin and full of love for those around her in a way that resembles only Sonya from Crime and Punishment.

however, what separates Anna and Raskolnikov is Raskolnikov’s willingness to admit to his true motivations and therefore be forgiven for the entirety of his crime. While Raskolnikov repents, Anna refuses to admit that her love for Vronsky in combination with her desire to choose her own happiness over marital tradition is the reason for her leaving Karenin.