being that this is an OER resource, hopefully it is help to make a suggestion here. I think that this sentence, without evidence or more of a narrative, is too sweeping. How do we know that corporations today do not act in the public interest?

As organizations became more and more powerful, the public became more and more aware of the need to regulate these business as well.

This is a good example of the interlocking aspect of history- it is likely that this opportunity led to increasing amounts of women's empowerment, and rights.

utilizing the environment's resources enriched people, so they began to encourage this practice.

The local economy required local transportation and manufacturing.

This also increases the significance of Teddy' Roosevelt's National Parks initiatives, as they were a change from previous thought.

Originally decided locally.

I am also wondering if new technological opportunities also increased the potential for an environmental usage contact.

And also was a good demonstration of the power that corporations could wield because of their financial positions.

There are multiple reasons why corporations were organized first- both political, and technologically. Politically, because democracy did not exist, and technologically because communication between large number of stakeholders was very difficult and expensive.

Interesting that the U.S. maintained common law from England as a system.

Similar to case law used today.

Thesis of chapter- the change in ideas of the purpose of the economy.

The Ranney Letters: Family Correspondence during the Yankee Migration eBook provided insight as to the social, economic and environmental dynamics pertaining to westward expansion in the 19th century.

Upon review of these letters, it is interesting to note what is important to the writer and reader of the letters, and the social courtesy each writer took in communicating with his intended reader. Strong family connections and reciprocity were values that were present for these individuals during this time period regardless of the conditions or environment they lived in.

Upon reading letters from siblings to each other, it is clear to me how important the notion of timely reciprocity was to maintaining family relations between the siblings. Each of the letters usually began with an apology due to too much time passing between responses, there are also regular references to the health of the writer, and the weather in the region, and occasionally, time for some gossip on family friends or other family members. There is even some personal advice given in one of the letters (encouraging the younger brother to find a wife), and the reasons given as to why being to make the brother happy in the evenings when they are not working. What was also remarkable was the strong bonds that existed to maintain a connection even the brothers moved frequently, and how sophisticated the mail must have been to be able to find each letter’s intended recipient in an area so remote.

The importance of economics and personal finance was also prevalent in the letters. Each letter seemed to contain a selection in which a brother is describing some of his buying, selling, or the prices of crops/commodities on the general market. Certainly, financial success was very important to each of the writers. At times there are requests for money to be transferred from west to east (how money was securely transferred is still a mystery to me), and also expectations of reciprocity (such as paying a brother for the postage fees for mailing a newspaper). During letter 2 on May 19, 1839, it was particularly interesting how Lewis asked brother Henry to help with funds for their father with “fifty or a hundred Dollars” to help get his father until harvest.

The Ranney Letters provided more insight as to how life for the early U.S. family was experiencing life in the 19th century. While many were moving west, connections to “home” back east were still prevalent with settlers still wanting to remain connected with the latest news from the area, and the health and well being of their family members. Ideas, goods, services, and capitol traveled both west and east as the western frontier continually expanded eastward. While the letters do focus on the economic and labor intensive conditions of westward expansion, they also show a picture of life that was not all about work – there was the importance of health, happiness, family, and even political philosophy that was very important to all citizens, which isn’t much different than today. The family was and still remains to be a central unit of organizing in the U.S., and the Ranney Letters provide an intimate look into the life of one family unit.

A revolution against the new U.S Republic- even if it was under the articles of confederation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion

I am curious why George Ranney bought the 100 acre farm if he did not have an intention to use it?

fairly wealthy.

Becoming a land owner was an seen as an important part of becoming a responsible adult, as evidenced by the ability to vote when the U.S. became a republic.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phelps,_New_York

slightly larger....

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashfield,_Massachusetts

at present, small town in Mass.

The Ranney Letters: Family Correspondence during the Yankee Migration eBook provided insight as to the social, economic and environmental dynamics pertaining to westward expansion in the 19th century. Upon review of these letters, it is interesting to note what is important to the writer and reader of the letters, and the social courtesy each writer took in communicating with his intended reader. Strong family connections and reciprocity were values that were present for these individuals during this time period regardless of the conditions or environment they lived in.

Upon reading letters from siblings to each other, it is clear to me how important the notion of timely reciprocity was to maintaining family relations between the siblings. Each of the letters usually began with an apology due to too much time passing between responses, there are also regular references to the health of the writer, and the weather in the region, and occasionally, time for some gossip on family friends or other family members. There is even some personal advice given in one of the letters (encouraging the younger brother to find a wife), and the reasons given as to why being to make the brother happy in the evenings when they are not working. What was also remarkable was the strong bonds that existed to maintain a connection even the brothers moved frequently, and how sophisticated the mail must have been to be able to find each letter’s intended recipient in an area so remote.

The importance of economics and personal finance was also prevalent in the letters. Each letter seemed to contain a selection in which a brother is describing some of his buying, selling, or the prices of crops/commodities on the general market. Certainly, financial success was very important to each of the writers. At times there are requests for money to be transferred from west to east (how money was securely transferred is still a mystery to me), and also expectations of reciprocity (such as paying a brother for the postage fees for mailing a newspaper). During letter 2 on May 19, 1839, it was particularly interesting how Lewis asked brother Henry to help with funds for their father with “fifty or a hundred Dollars” to help get his father until harvest.

The Ranney Letters provided more insight as to how life for the early U.S. family was experiencing life in the 19th century. While many were moving west, connections to “home” back east were still prevalent with settlers still wanting to remain connected with the latest news from the area, and the health and well being of their family members. Ideas, goods, services, and capitol traveled both west and east as the western frontier continually expanded eastward. While the letters do focus on the economic and labor intensive conditions of westward expansion, they also show a picture of life that was not all about work – there was the importance of health, happiness, family, and even political philosophy that was very important to all citizens, which isn’t much different than today. The family was and still remains to be a central unit of organizing in the U.S., and the Ranney Letters provide an intimate look into the life of one family unit.

Interesting dynamic of asking a younger child for money. I'm surprised that wasn't considered against mores.

did they adopt or hire someone to help around the house?

A revival?

boom & bust cycle of prospecting.

It is interesting how much commodities and pricing dominates the letters.

Interesting to read about women becoming more assertive here.

It would seem that reading the paper was a very important activity- highly desirable as it was referenced in almost every letter.

How was money sent during these times? - checks?

who is he referring to? "Loco Party of the North" - does he mean "Local"

It would be interesting to learn more about relationship dynamics at this time. It would seem that 24 would be considered fairly old to get married at this time.

one of the first products that could be sold outside of the farm.

sick with "consumption"- probably an infection.

interesting that there was a barter and cash system here.

clear ownership of the property.

Chapter 4: Frontier and Grid tell the story of the environmental conditions in American History between the mid-1700s to the mid-1800s promoted westward expansion by settlers from the original colonies. Many of the original colonial settlements were built directly on top of settlements used by the Native Americans who were no longer there due to being decimated by disease. It is presumed these settlements were by the colonists due to their close proximity to natural resources and cleared space available. Conflict with the native tribes was a constant source of conflict. Even under threat of attack, the positives of westward expansion was almost universally supported by the colonists. In explaining a cause of the Revolutionary War, the chapter describes it best that “one of the grievances that led to the American Revolution was colonial anger….limiting westward expansion of the colonies”. This was due to the Cherokee nation fighting in an alliance with the British during the Seven Years War. The restrictions from this Proclamation of 1763 were overturned after the colonists defeated the British.

Even before the constitution was signed, the Northwest Ordinance was approved to allow westward expansion into the present day north and the midwestern United States. The chapter indicates that the population of the young republic of the United States was growing quickly both due to a high birthrate (higher than in Europe) and a high immigration rate of Germans, Irish, and British fleeing instability and famine. Due to this increase, westward expansion was perceived as necessary to take care of the growing economic and dietary needs of the country. The economy of the U.S. in the early 18th century was still very reliant upon agriculture and it would take about 80 acres at minimum for a farmer to feed his family and produce a little extra to take to market. Because families had multiple children, it required westward expansion to continue this type of lifestyle- usually the oldest males traveled west by purchasing land from the government (at the time the government could not tax so this was a source of revenue), and the youngest son stayed at home to take over the family estate and care for the parents. The Northwest Ordinance provided a solution to this problem by selling land to these prospective farmers at very inexpensive prices (about $1 per acre) who continued to move west.

Purchasing land from the Northwest Ordinance did carry a risk- land was purchased sight-unseen by the purchaser, and even if the land was not swampy or was unable to grow crops, work to clear the land was required. The chapter estimates that a typical household could clear about eight (8) acres per year. Eventually “after a couple of decades, a successful settler family usually had 20 to 30 acres of improved land” and be able to sell excess surplus goods to market to make a profit. This type of farmer became an archetype in U.S. culture as a “self-made” man who can also provide for his regular needs. Of course, the celebration of this achievement did not always fully expose the trials that came as a result of settling the land.

Another topic that because contentious as a result of settled land was slavery. The Northwest Ordinance restricted slavery from the new territories in the Northwest Ordinance, thus changing the economy/production of those areas. Without slaves, large tracts of land could not be managed by one estate. This created different economic conditions between the north and south states. As new territories became states, the question of slavery continued until the Civil War.

As the United States furthered its expansion westward, it did so on without the consent of the American Indians. The notion of expanding westward was romanticized with the idea of Manifest Destiny which caused settlers to believe they were doing sacred work by expanding civilization and democracy westward. The combination of a high birthrate, large numbers of immigrants, and land that was taken from the American Indians through warfare, treaty, or just claimed, changed the course of history for all parties involved. Ideas such as the romanticizing of being a self-sustaining producer, or a “self-made man” continue to perpetuate the American psyche, even if the U.S is not a majority agrarian society as it was during this time period.

Economic opportunity was a large influencer causing all to move West.

Free markets allowing different types of competition between farmers.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_life_movement

No diversification of crops, unlike the Native Americans.

It is important to note that the westward expansion and growth of American population wasn't just due to a high birthrate, it was due to a large influx of immigration from Europe, fleeing famines and wars.

I think it was justn't democracy- it was this combination of Christianity and the Enlightenment thinking. It really was to spread Western Civilization westward.

and the idea of being a "self made man" being such an aspired idea.

Importance of waterways to transport raw materials/goods to market and for the Erie canal.

Becoming centers of commerce due to their locations.

It opened conflict because if the Northwest Ordinance banned slave ownership, the Louisiana Compromise created the question of what to do with it in the south.

An example of how a law can have a significant effect on culture and the environment. Without slavery, large scale farming was impossible.

A precursor decision that continued to be with the US until the Civil War ended.

How strong the national sentiment to be a "self made" individual must have been to take on this hard work.

This must have been a risk- land may not have all been very productive.

80 acres was the smallest farm lot needed to raise a family.

Demographics influenced the creation of free public schooling.

Northwest Ordinance was devised as a revenue generating scheme, because the CC could not tax.

The youngest most often as the trade was that he would take care of the estate and the parents. This also made westward expansion a necessity and an issue of politics- meaning it would be a desire of landowners (who could vote) and thus an interest of the politicians.

A young and expanding country. I am curious what made the birthrate higher? I would think it was a less dense population, which made disease transition more difficult and less infant mortality.

This was an aspect of the Treaty of Paris in 1783 that I did not pay attention to- it ceded lands which were not owned by the British to the colonists..

Yet it was their westward expansion that was creating the conflict.

Proclamation of 1763

And more sustainable in that their consumption of resources did not outstrip the productivity of the land.

The same building locations were used due to the terrain, access to freshwater, flat I am assuming.

There is a central question about the environment that is asked in the text excerpts from The View from Walden-when considering the European colonization of North America had paradise been lost or was paradise gained? Did the influx of European colonists in the 18th century destroy the environment in its natural state, or help shape it into a better more productive version? The answer is “neither”. The environment is not separate from mankind and has always been shaped by mankind. The effects of its condition and how it influences its inhabitants requires more investigation.

The reading begins by quoting Thoreau’s viewpoint. Thoreau’s perspective was that the original, perfect state of the environment had been corrupted by the English settlers- that the “park-like atmosphere” due to burning techniques by the American Indians had almost vanished, and numerous “noble creatures” such as “bear, moose, deer” (page 4) were in short supply. According to Thoreau, nature’s perfect steady state that had existed relatively unchanged for thousands of years was in decline, and the colonists were responsible.

While there was no debate as to whether the environment was changing in the 17th century, there was not a consensus as to whether that was a bad thing. Page 5 states, “the transformation of wilderness betokened the planting of a garden, and not the fall from one; any change in the New England environment was divinely ordained and wholly positive”. This perspective viewed mankind in a positive light as “civilizing the wilderness” by improving it to make it more productive.

Because of these divergent views about the state of the environment, it is more difficult to determine what the actual characteristics of the environmental landscape were. To better determine the environmental condition, alternative methods of inquiry are needed. Deeds and surveyor records were reviewed, ecological information such as tree rings, carbon dating, and archaeological evidence was collected, and personal journal entries were reviewed among other sources. It is important to note as well that “not all environmental changes which took place after European settlement was caused by it” (page 9)- as the environment is always going through natural cycles that cannot always be attributed to European settlement.”

The View from Walden summarizes for the reader on page 12 that the dichotomy of whether the European intrusion into North America was positive or negative for the environment is a false choice – “The choice is not between two landscapes, one with and one without human influence, it is between two ways of living, two ways of belonging to an ecosystem”. Human beings have always been entangled with nature, and for the foreseeable future, will continue to be entangled. The ways in which humanity was entangled with the environment are drastically different when comparing the American Indian and European methods and philosophy for land use. While the European method has created greater wealth and economic, political, and military power in the short run (400-500 years), it is unclear if it is sustainable. Some of the same sustainability concerns that were present in the 1700s are still of concern today. The roots of humanity’s angst about its relationship with the environment are not a recent phenomenon due to urbanization-- they were present at the beginning of the colonization movement. Many of the concerns and perspectives on the environment today were present 300 years ago and not just in the twenty-first century.

main idea is that our current relationship with the environment had roots in the the colonist philosophies of land management and profit.

colonists farming techniques are not sustainable, and leads to something we struggle with today.

hence the need to keep expanding and pushing Indians westward.

European economy was wasteful of natural resources due to scarcity of materials in foreign markets.

in percapita production, Europeans were not much more effective than American Indians. The difference is how they saw the resources and the purposes of production-to grow and sell in markets.

American Indians used resources like the Europeans, but the purpose of their use was more local and egalitarian.

Indians had to adapt to the changing environmental conditions as they always did.

owning animals and capitalism led to new ventures to make a profit/consume resources.

owning animals vs managing the land to make hunting conditions favorable

Doesn't seem too much different than today. Can capitalism every be separated from ecological damage?

Fundamental belief about the environment differed from the American Indians.

These three paragraphs indicate that the environment was in decline.

Due to a variety of diseases that American Indians had not had to adapt to because they did not keep livestock.

Humanity cannot exist outside of its environment in this analysis.

exactly. Not a false question of human civilization or pristine wilderness, but two different behaviors in relationship to the environment.

still an issue today--to much mythos to get back to a "golden age" that never existed.

definition of ecosystem

relating to or involving the explanation of phenomena in terms of the purpose they serve rather than of the cause by which they arise.

Seems like the central question is- are humans part of nature and thus part of the organism or separate from it?

Some may have been climate cycles, other natural disasters/changes, etc.

Difficult to determine variety with inconsistent labels/definitions.

Without cataloged measurements, it would be impossible to determine this.

Putting all of this information is equally challenging, if some information does not align with other documents.

And a limited amount of knowledge of the history of the environment in these locations.

Two competing ideas- were we losing something special, or gaining civilization?

It seems that this hypothesis has more in common with humanism - the pinnacle of mankind's achievement than strictly the enlightenment, which was about applying the scientific method to everything.

species of settlers? A misunderstanding of race and what it means to be a human being led to an incorrect hypothesis.

civilizing is an adapt term here.

Not an unfamiliar debate to today. Is progress good or bad?

The spiritual question was that of a loss, but in reality, the environment had been in constant change.

What makes up a "nobler animal"?

Due to a loss of habitat from American Indian Land Management

Due to American Indian practices of burning the underbrush to promote better hunting habitat.

Chapter 3, Colonial America continues the story of mankind’s evolution in relation to its environment. The story of mankind in America began with the Native Americans making the North and South American continents their home and was followed by a few exchanges from Europe. After explorers reported back their findings to their countries (often exaggerating their discoveries), the next wave of colonists began arriving in hopes of finding their riches.

The first colonists in the American hemisphere were not English but settlers from Spain and Portugal. Prior to the Spanish Armada being defeated by English navy in 1588, the Spanish and Portuguese had military control over the Atlantic Ocean which provided them an advantage to be first to make an attempt to colonize the Americas. Portuguese and Spanish explorers- Cortez, Pizzaro, and Vespucci lead expeditions and established settlements in Central and South America due to epidemics of smallpox, cholera, and diphtheria, decimating the populations of the local tribes. The explorers attributed these events to God supporting their cause in which they believed they had a divine mandate to settle the Americas. Both Spain and Portugal were Catholic countries, and under authority of the Pope who gave them direction to split their territorial claims at 47.37 West Longitude. After the reformation began, English and Northern Scandinavian countries also began making expeditions to the Americas.

Roanoke Island was the first English colony settled in 1588. After the failed Roanoke Island colony, the Virginia Company established Jamestown. Jamestown’s original building site was occupied by tribes so the settlers chose another swampy location that was unoccupied. As a result of the poor environmental conditions in the surrounding area (it was swampy), and a lack of planning, about 75% of the colonists died in the first nine months. Conditions were difficult for the colonists, as their European practices at land management did not allow them to adapt to the American environment. Eventually the colonies were sustainable through hard work and using some of the Native farming techniques, and other colonies were established as well. As colonies increased in size, so did potential conflict with the Native Americans.

From the perspective of the Native Americans land ownership was a very fluid concept. Native Americans utilized land but did not see it possible to own it. In addition, anything the land supported (such as livestock) was open season for hunting. Since they did not have the concept of land ownership, both groups did not have the same concept of the value about mediums of exchange. Instead, when items were traded for the land, Indians viewed the trade goods as a gift of goodwill and friendship, instead of payment for their property. Because of these different perspectives, war was inevitable.

As a result of the Native American populations continuing to decline due to epidemics and wars, historians estimate that the environmental landscape during the 18th century changed significantly. American Indians managed the forests and created environments with large amounts of good habitat for their hunting prey. The preferred method to manage their environment was through burning the underbrush to clear the land. This practice eventually favored Pine trees to become more common in North America. It is suggested that when large numbers of the American Indian population died, the climate changed significantly as the forests began to grow into the open spaces increasing the absorption of carbon dioxide-perhaps creating a mini ice age. As the amount of great habitat decreased, so did the number of wild game.

As a result of the colonists coming to the Americas, the environment changed. These colonists struggled, sometimes starved and died, worked with American Indian tribes, and slowly began to thrive, but their presence continued to decimate the American Indian populations. These events impacted the North American environment in significant ways.

The virgin soil epidemics of the Columbian exchange changed the course of history.

First, it was indentured servants, then, because there were no Natives around, Africans were enslaved.

European governmental interest=commercial. Religious groups=freedom of religion.

This is a reasonable viewpoint of a clash of civilizations- not all individuals wanted to cheat the natives.

And the previously created agreements were not enforced.

Passenger pigeon thrives due to changes in land management due to the dying-off of Native populations. Perhaps due to the environment the colonists were creating as well?

Source? While I am sure that a reduction in CO2 occurred, it seems too sudden to be responsible for a change in climate of a few degrees to trigger global cooling.

Managed the land. Instead of owning animals, Natives made habitats that would cause them to flourish to increase their hunting yields.

Each sex had its role to ensure survival and food production due to no livestock.

farming without chemicals to bolster production.

This seems consistent with the time- likely due to large numbers of Natives impacted by disease.

I might add a few words to provide more approximation to what this is trying to say to the reader to ensure the reader isn't interpreting this to think the author actually believes Squanto was a "good Indian".

Seeing only the emptiness of the land and not the vast amount of suffering on the part of the Natives.

Full-circle travel of native crops from America to Europe and back.

From wikipedia "Georges Bank is a large elevated area of the sea floor between Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia. It separates the Gulf of Maine from the Atlantic Ocean. The origin of its name is obscure."

What might have been the motivation of Captain John Smith to exaggerate the conditions? Possibly to raise capital or volunteers to bolster the colony?

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palisade - Palisade walls were likely here trees stuck into the ground standing upright.

although there is little evidence, this is the most plausible explanation for the disappearance. Perhaps the settlers abandoned their colony and moved, and eventually joined the natives.

I reviewed a world map at https://www.mapsofindia.com/worldmap/latitude-longitude.html to gain some perspective. upon review of this location, it is clear to see why the Portugese colonized Brazil, and the Spanish went further west. It is also interesting that had the Pope had a clear understanding of geography, it would be clear to all parties how much better of a deal Spain received.

An example that the 19th century concept of Manifest Destiny was not a new concept. Through a combination of cultural beliefs of superiority, and a desire to expand Christendom, these people believed that God was on their side.

There is a history of the Iberian people that I was not familiar with - see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberians. The simplest definition that the text infers is those people who live in the areas of Spain and Portugal, but have a history that goes back to the times of the Roman Republic.

1491 was written by Charles C. Mann and appeared in the March 2002 issue of the Atlantic. It provides an alternative historical view point that the Western Hemisphere was not empty, wild, or savage, but rather an environment that the humans living their utilized to meet their needs. By providing a review of scholarly literature, Mann provides a convincing argument that “the Western Hemisphere was more populous and sophisticated than has been thought”.

The article begins describing a trip Mann took to Bolivia in a province known as the “Beni”. The Beni is currently a sparsely populated location that has some very unique landmarks of connected berms and elevated flat ground that would be very effective to protect a civilization against flooding. There is debate as to whether “30,000 square miles of forest mounds surround by raised fields” were naturally occurring, or man-made. Depending how that question is answered leads to very significant discoveries and acknowledgements about the past inhabitants. Mann then posits the main idea of the article that American Indians were much more populous and that life was much more advanced prior to 1492 than is given credit by historians.

Mann catalogs the differences of opinion between historians – those who interpret the evidence in a manner that is more traditional- that there were smaller numbers of American Indians living in the Western Hemisphere, and those who infer from the evidence that there were as many American Indians living in the Western Hemisphere in the 1400s as in Europe. Mann claims that not only were there large groups of American Indians, but “they were so successful at imposing their will on the landscape that in 1492 Columbus set foot in a hemisphere thoroughly dominated by mankind.” Mann’s theory, if true changes the historical narrative significantly. Colonists were not settling an empty wilderness, they could be considered invaders moving into another country. Mann also posits a significant theme of environmental history- that humans and the environment have always been intertwined—there is not getting back to a time when the wilderness was wild and free, because nature had always been used for the purposes of mankind’s survival.

Population estimates vary, but a moderate estimate is that 150 million people were living in the Western Hemisphere during the time of Columbus.. Mann describes how such a large percent of the population was decimated by disease due to the virgin soil epidemics that Europeans unknowingly unleashed on the non-immune native populations. Epidemic explains why early explorers provided narratives about thriving populous cities, and then why later records reported areas empty and unpopulated. Mass extinction due to illness also explains why conquistadors like “Francisco Pizarro was able to seize an empire the size of Spain and Italy combined with a force of 168 men.” Europe’s advantage was not in military force, economic strength, or technological superiority, but due to the fact that it had developed immunity to several of the diseases transmitted from animals to humans due to its history of domesticating animals. Implications for such a large population decline change the predominant narrative of Western civilization but also a larger question raised by Elizabeth Fenn: “the consequential finding is not that many people died, but that many people once lived”. These Americans would have had to develop substantial culture, trading, and economic relationships with each other, and would have shaped the land to suit their needs.

The article concludes with an environmental historical perspective- that indigenous Americans were a “keystone species”- one which “affects the survival and abundance of many other species”. Like any other civilization, the Early Americans were no different; they shaped their environment to suit their needs- they need to get credit for it and the myth that colonists landed in unsettled nature in its perfect state, needs to be deconstructed.

A great ending with an example of how environmental History can impact public policy and political agendas

American Indians were a keystone species that had significant environmental impacts when they were reduced in number..

Interesting that if true, another civilization did 2000 or more years ago what we cannot yet.

Theory of how Amazonians improved the soil. Couldn't it also be possible that they lived in a region with this kind of soil?

12 percent of rainforest built by humans?

Roosevelt's theory was that native tribes improved the forest through their work in it. One way was by planting orchards.

I am skeptical of this, but will look for the proof below.

drew in game instead of domesticating them. The American Indians didn't live off the land, they shaped the land.

One of the reasons that the Indigenous people were successful farmers is that they "reshaped entire landscapes to suit their purposes". (fire)

This is a great questions without a good answer from the missionary.

presentism is difficult to not do when looking at history, but it also keeps us from understanding as well and being objective.

America was larger in population, had better standard of living, and more human rights, but not more immune.

depressing how the need for a labor supply to conduct farming in the Americas and the increase in food production led to increased slave trade; American Indians couldn't do it because their population was decimated.

Perhaps increased food quantities also led to rising standards of living and an industrial revolution in Europe?

Individuals in the Americas were very farmers and contributed so much to today's food supply.

American Indians missed out on technological progress from the Neolithic Revolution.

racism clouded his opinions of American Indians.

This is an excellent point. While there is a narrative about loss, there also must be one about life. What kind of lives did they lead before the Europeans came? What were their customs prior to having their populations ravaged?

Dobyn's theory was unprecedented and changed opinions of re-contact.

European history with disease meant they had some more knowledge/skills to combat it.

Skeptics of this large a percentage of death indicate that this is not as high as past plagues.

Evidence presented as to how Hudson reconstructed the large population die-off- when DeSoto arrived, there were large cities, 100 years when Cavelier arrived, there was nothing.

Most of the diseases that mankind struggled with were obtained from animals.

95% fatality rate (if true) due to virgin soil epidemic.

https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/smallpox/ provides information about George Washington's strategy ensuring that those with small pox were quarantined. He suffered from the virus at 19.

wow. If true, this would signal one of the largest extinction events in recorded history.

Multiple epidemics- virgin soil diseases. I appreciate this addition, as I had always just assumed small pox.

It will be interesting to see how this estimate had a role to play in today's culture wars.

I wish the author shared how Mooney arrived at that number.

Interesting point that the number of American Indians living in the Americas has been a topic of debate.

At risk of engaging in presentism, this statement by Bradford was such an arrogant statement- luck may have favored the colonists, not god.

recurring theme- individuals who were first to the Americas were not actually first. This was also referenced in chapter 1 of the OER Text Environmental History with the Vikings preceding Columbus.

If humanity has always been completely entangled with its environment, there is no getting back to a restorative time, which is a key philosophical view point for environmentalists, still, it does not undermine the movement, there is still a need to live sustainably and in harmony with nature.

Central idea of the chapter. Indigenous people were technologically and culturally advanced.

salubrious = healthy.

Chapter 1 of the text described how Eurasian peoples who were descendants of Africans, expanded and spread throughout the world influenced by environmental climate cycles and natural resources. Chapter 2 is about these groups who are now culturally and genetically distinctive after twelve thousand years of separation coming back into contact with each other and some of the disastrous results as a result. Columbas’s fleet was not the first contact between Europeans and Native Americans; it is likely that the Vikings were. The Vikings established colonies and interacted with some of the indigenous tribes of Canida as early as 1000 CE, almost 2500 years before Columbus. However, these Viking colonies did not last. It is likely the environment was a key factor in their failure. Beginning the 14th century, there was a mini ice age which occurred and lasted for four hundred years. It appears that increased cold temperatures made resupply of these colonies impossible, and it is also likely that food production was negatively impacted

When Columbas was approved by the Spanish crown to sail, Europe was thriving economically and its population was growing due to the large expansion and productivity of fishing. The text estimates that the global population was approximately 500 million “evenly split between Europe, Africa, and the Americas” While Columbus did not discover an empty continent, in a few hundred years, the virgin soil epidemics would make that a reality in some regions of the Americas.

It was the environment that forced Columbus to dock (permanently) with America when the Santa Maria “ran aground” on Christmas Day December 25th in 1492. After meeting with the local tribe, Columbus returned with two ships and some natural resources, including gold, wildlife, and crops, and wrote “Letter on the First Voyage” exaggerating some of his findings so as to receive approval to make another trip. In addition, Columbus transported native plants and animals of Central America back to Europe.

As travel to the Americas increased, Europeans brought over many plants and animals that affected the American environment. New crops and livestock were introduced, and horses were also brought over which greatly changed the culture of the Great Plains Indians. As previously stated, Europeans also brought over very significant trait: their germs. It is likely that up to 90% of the American Indian population in 250 years died as a result of these germs. The reason that the conquistadors were successful in conquering some of the American Indian Civilizations was that the disease had already decimated their civilizations and societies and prevented the indigenous populations from effectively fighting back. Europeans owed much of their inherited immunity from these viruses to their contact with their livestock, which was not present in the Native American tribes. Some large native cities experienced such large population die-offs, that new European cities were built right on top of the old ones (Mexico City) because very few inhabitants were left

Chapter 2 provides more information about how the environment altered the course of history for indigenous Americans and the European explorers. It is clear that with every significant historical event or trend, the environment had a causal role- impacting the decisions and ultimately histories of those involved.

another product of globalism. However, is biological homogeneity a bad thing?

Through luck of immunity, it seems as though the Europeans only gained from their visits to Americas and the native american inhabitants lost. Quinine was another example of this.

This is the most fascinating part of this chapter- these groups were the same at one point, separated, and re-connected in a devastating way.

The conquistadors were successful not because of their military or technological might, but because of their immunity.

probably an imperfect analogy as the disease was not random.

an unintended consequence of a virgin soil epidemic- expansion of slavery.

This is why the United States west was described as "empty", because viruses had decimated the native inhabitants.

re-contact is the best way to describe this as two groups of people who originally came from the same place reconnected.

What is interesting about the growth of horse culture was how quickly the numbers of horses increased in America from the 1500s.

The beginning of globalization? Transporting plants and animals from one area of the world to the other.

Important context. - It is interesting again, how the environment played a role in influencing future expeditions.

Landed by accident? I didn't' know it ran aground.

175 million in the Americas- until disease decimated the population.

one of many factors which led to the Renaissance/

I don't think the text is asserting this as fact, but it seems like an exageration from Caboto.

This is almost 2500 years prior to Columbus. While they may had to travel less distance, , it is still impressive if true. I wonder what environmental factors influenced this?

Little Ice age- another environmental trend that influenced the history of North America.

I'd like to provide some feedback here to the OER text. I'm not sure this sentence should be here as it is not necessary as it is not evidence based upon scientific fact. From my point of view, this risks being a logical fallacy- one should not dismiss the idea of other colonies just because we are not speaking a language. I'm sure the reason this was inserted was more to make the text more interesting, but i don't think it should be listed here as a supportive statement to the first part of the sentence.

This is really interesting, but how do we know they were interested in milk? Is it because cattle were not there prior to the settlers? Were the natives able to digest it?

I never knew it really was 2 AM

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus

Not only that, but the natural resources, weather patterns, and topography did as well.

I don't think there is a better word to be used by "discovered", but I always find it interesting that one person is given credit for this, and that anyone can be given credit for finding something which was not hiding.

Not to engage in presentism, but do understand causality and the environment's role in it.

Main idea of the text. It is very helpful when authors do this so the reader can prepare for what he/she plans to learn.

Chapter 1 of the course text describes how early Americans reached North and South America, and some of their common characteristics of how they lived. A few of the significant themes from the text include information about the rich histories of the early Americans prior to Columbus “discovering” American in 1492 and a narrative that describes the extent that the environment impacted the development of these early American civilizations.

The text begins by describing how recent historical discoveries have changed the narrative of early American history. The text aptly states that “our continent’s history does not begin with Columbus or even the Vikings but with the stories of people who arrived in the Americas ten thousand years before the first Europeans”. Over long periods of time, changes in climate- the ice age; caused global ocean levels to fall which provided the opportunities for early American hunter-gathering tribes to live in Beringia, a place that is now underwater in the Pacific Ocean and in the Bearing Straight. These early Americans were hunter-gatherers who followed their prey into Beringia where they lived for thousands of years. Eventually, a warming climate necessitated the Berringians move inland to modern-day North and South America. It is incredible that these people traversed North and South America to arrive as far as Chile on foot. These tribes settled in different areas of North and South America and built different civilizations depending on their surrounding environments.

Early Americans developed trade routes with each other—we know this because many plants have been discovered in city ruins that were not from the region. Early Americans were resourceful and adaptable; the text states “Early Americans were not only incredibly mobile, but they were also remarkably good at learning which local plants were healthy to eat”. As early Americans clustered into groups, independent cultures formed based upon the environmental conditions around them. Different spearhead chipping techniques suggest that civilizations rose and fell in the same areas, meaning that civilizations were not static and were subject to the same environmental factors as any other civilization. New technologies such as genomic sequencing, carbon dating, and satellite imaging are continuing to provide new information about the rich histories that were present in the Americas prior to 1492.

Unique environmental factors led early Americans to develop civilizations different than those who lived in other parts of the world. The fossil record suggests that some of the large mammals that early Americans relied upon like the Wooly Mammoth and Dire Wolf died off due to a variety of factors including environmental changes or over hunting. This change in the food supply caused early Americans to focus on agriculture. Early Americans bred crops through selective hybridization, creating corn & maize from an ancient grass. These regular food supplies allowed populations to grow and great civilizations to flourish. Large metropolitan areas existed to support millions of people in a single city in the case of Lake Texcoco. These early Americans supported this large population with some of the most productive intensive farming techniques in the world.

Chapter 1 closes with a sentence of perspective: it states “Nearly all of the changes that made Native Americans different from the Europeans they met in the Caribbean in 1492 happened recently, after the Eurasian hunter-gathers who were our ancestors went their separate ways during the last ice age”. What is fascinating is how crucial a role the environment played in shaping the course of these changes. It is unclear if the story of history can be told without people, but it is certain that history cannot be understood without considering the environment in which the events occurred.

This closing paragraph highlights some of the separate themes of the text. We are all one species, and all of the changes we notice today are a result of environmental factors that occurred relatively recently that changed our own developments.

This is truly impressive. We are not doing this today, and the Marajo did this thousands of years ago better.

This is a great example of how the Americas were not the less developed world with Europe being more technologically advanced. Intensive farming practices were much more robust in the Americas.

Do civilizations take similar steps to develop- to transition from hunter gathering traits to growing their own food and putting down roots? I am assuming the environment has a large role to play how quickly this happens.

This form of selective breeding is especially interesting in that it happened 9000 years ago, it would seem to be one of the most important inventions in human history as corn is such an important product.

These two sentences do not seem to connect with each other- the first is discussing a different environment which meant less animal domestication, and the next is about plants..

This is a great example that while our technological capabilities were far less than today, human beings are incredibly resourceful and can adapt.

I had the impression that the land bridge between Russia and the US was very temporary, but for a mass migration to occur, this would not have made sense for large migration to occur. This was a place. It was not just for migrating- it was a place people lived.

I am connecting back this idea back to a previously stated idea that it is likely that all humans today ultimately came from a few hundred Africans. This is impressive.

This must have been confirmed through genetic testing. Interesting to me that as I am Caucasian and have traced my family origins back to eastern France, it is likely I share some genetic material with Neanderthals.

This is a great example of how environmental history helps to inform the story of homo sapiens- environmental changes necessitated both migration and a population decline.

Utilizing multiple methods of inquiry and discovery.

I was not aware of this evolutionary branch. This is an excellent point regarding interbreeding. It caused me to access Description

to learn more about this.

A great example of environmental changes in climate altered the course of human decision making and travel.

What scientific breakthroughs have occurred? Perhaps this will be shared in the chapter.

I really appreciate it when the author provides a central thesis to the chapter for the reader. It seems like this references "hybridity" that was described in the"World Without Us" by Paul Suttler.

The World with Us: The State of American Environmental History by Paul Sutter provides both a summary of the changes in the relatively new field of environmental history, examples of its complexity, and recommendations for its future. The article provides both a narrative of the field’s strengths, as well as its weaknesses that it must address to expand its reach and influence into the future.

Environmental history as an academic discipline began in the 1960s in conjunction with the environmental movement with the notion that only by understanding a historical perspective, could some of the more complex environmental problems be solved. Donald Worster was one of the scholarly champions of this movement and one of the most influential voices in environmental history at the beginning of the field. The movement’s early philosophical underpinnings were to provide evidence of how human civilization had eroded and destroyed the natural world. It was viewed as another category of analysis or lens for understanding history. The natural world was viewed as without blemish, and human begins were viewed as the principal agents of its destruction. Eventually the concept of “hybridity” emerged in the field, which Sutter used to provide a differentiation between the first generation of the discipline to the second generation. The concept of hybridity espouses that the natural world and the human world impact each other cannot be separated. Environmental conditions, locations and the number of natural resources all affect the state of human development and human interventions in the environment change the environmental conditions on the planet. The concept of “hybridity” is explored and further defined in the rest of the article.

“Hybridity” provides a more realistic, complex, and detailed backdrop to discuss environmental history. While it does seem to make the discipline of environmental history harder to define, it allows for more multifaceted narratives about causes in the historical timeline to emerge. For example, the geographic location of the United States contributed to its cultural and economic development- the oceans provided protection from hostile invaders, and its abundant resources allowed for the industrial revolution. While the environment did not have the agency to dictate the history of the United States in this example, it did influence the decision made by individuals about where to live and what to do.

The article expands the scope of environmental history to include everything in the environment, including animals, natural resources, and urbanization. A quote from the article that summarizes this position is “for environmental historians, there can be no world without us”. As such the resource we extract, the farmlands humans create, the animals in geographic regions, and the concrete villages (cities) we construct all are a part of the story of environmental history. All of these changes influence cause and effect relationships and how different aspects have changed over time. Even the attempts of conservation impact the story of our world.

Sutter's article describes some political and social responses to the environment that individuals, government, and business have attempted. Many examples provided inferred the hubris of human beings making futile attempts to control nature through legislation that and ineffective policies- some of which canceled each other out from being effective

The thesis here is to promote how deeply interlinked humanity is with its environment. Only through an understanding of the environment as a whole and its influence on human beings and humanity’s influence on the environment can one understand. The young field of environmental history is still in transition but it has already provided better answers and explanations to the story of humanity and will continue to enhance our understanding of issues if utilized.

A result of the study of environmental history

An interesting perspective on Environmental History- one cannot understand the historical issue without understanding the environment, but it is also about the people.

Natural Resources, such as coal can also be a field of study in environmental history, as it has tremendous impacts on society.

How does the urban environment around different groups of people impact culture?

What to do with the study of a human built environment? Urban Environmental history.