Anothersimilar study in this area could be valuable in order to shed light on the relation between adolescent learners’motivation and the SLA process in elementary schools in Brazil.
Future studies should include longitudinal designs and mixed methods to capture motivation’s dynamic nature more accurately.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The study’s main limitations include: １．Motivation changes over time, making cross-sectional data limited. ２．Self-report questionnaires may contain bias or socially desirable answers. ３．L2 motivation research requires interdisciplinary expertise in linguistics, psychology, and education.
mismatch between teachers’ and students’ conceptionsof motivation
Aligning teachers’ and students’ conceptions of motivation enhances classroom engagement and learning outcomes.
ny teachers believe that by sticking to the language materials and trying to discipline theirstudents, they will manage to create a classroom environment that will be conducive to learning.
Teachers must adapt teaching methods to match students’ motivation types and social realities. Building interactive, inclusive, and student-centered lessons fosters sustained motivation.
dolescent students fromSchool 1 and School 2 conceive motivation differently,
Motivation differs across contexts: ・Private school students are less dependent on teacher influence. ・Public school students rely heavily on teacher enthusiasm and creativity.
otivatedteachers, enthusiastic about their performance in teaching, tend to more easily influence their students in aneffective learning process.
Supportive teachers and engaging environments are essential, as teacher motivation directly impacts students’ enthusiasm and performance.
t should besufficiently elastic to permit students to explore learning and socialization in a manner consistent with their needs.Fulfilling the needs of the students will keep them motivated and interested in learning, as they make theirtransition from elementary school to high school
Motivation is affected by physical, emotional, and social changes.
Early adolescence is a period of transition between elementary school and highschool, which includes a heightened awareness of emerging responsibilities and adulthood.
Adolescence is a transitional and unstable period where identity and social relations influence motivation.
The economic differences found between the students from the private school and the students fromthe public school were also confirmed by the coordinators of both schools.
Socioeconomic background, teacher enthusiasm, and classroom discipline significantly influence motivation levels.
chool 1 (theprivate one) have extrinsic motivation/instrumental orientation in learning English, while the ones from School 2(the public one) have intrinsic motivation/integrative orientation.
Private school students (School 1) show extrinsic motivation—focused on future success and career goals.
Public school students (School 2) show intrinsic motivation—driven by enjoyment and cultural interest.
The motivated students affirmed that they enjoy their English classes because they are usually fun,dynamic, and interesting, but they also associate those good moments to the teacher’s ability in running the classesin a smoothly way, always being happy, devoting great care to her work and helping them in clarifying theirdoubts with patience and dedication
Motivation is strongly tied to the teacher’s attitude, while demotivation often stems from external factors like fatigue or home issues.
The vast majority of participating students (88.33%) stated that they like to study English, mainlybecause they admire the language, finding it "cool", interesting, fun, exciting and "beautiful" and also because it isa universal language.
Most students (88%) like English because they find it enjoyable and culturally enriching. Only a small percentage focus on career benefits.
Research Question 5: What makes the investigated students feel motivated in class and what dotheir teachers believe motivates them the most?
Games, songs, group work, translation, and creative tasks are most motivating. Traditional grammar activities are less engaging.
Research Question 4: How do the investigated teachers perceive their adolescent students inclass?
The teacher believes students are generally motivated and shows it through active participation.
Research Question 3: Do the adolescent students investigated feel motivated or not in their EFLclasses?
About 61% feel motivated, while 30% fluctuate due to tiredness, sadness, or difficulty with content.
Research Question 2: What is motivation for the adolescent students` English teachersinvestigated?
Motivation is an inner drive leading to participation and enthusiasm. The teacher highlights that liking English makes learning easier.
Research Question 1: What is motivation for the adolescent students investigated?
Students see motivation as the desire to learn, often influenced by having dynamic, fun, and caring teachers. They value English for communication, culture, and understanding media.
The students who do not like their English classes (the minority of them) argued that school classesare very easy if compared to classes of languages courses they attend, and that the content seen in the regularclasses at school are a repetition of contents already learned in extra-curricular courses
Demotivation arises from repetitive content, poor discipline, and lack of classroom control. Students taking private English lessons tend to find school lessons less engaging.
Most of the students (almost 70% of them) like their English classes. They state that they do not havedifficulties in learning the language and that they feel motivated in doing so.
Most students (70%) enjoy English and find it easy, linking motivation to future opportunities and entertainment-related exposure to English.
Research Question 5: What makes the investigated students feel motivated in class and what dotheir teachers believe motivates them the most?
Students are most motivated by interactive activities like games, songs, films, and multimedia lessons. Teachers agree, noting younger students prefer games, while older ones enjoy music and movies.
Research Question 4: How do the investigated teachers perceive their adolescent students in class– motivated or not?
Teachers observe fluctuating motivation, higher during games and activities, lower during grammar-focused lessons.
Research Question 3: Do the adolescent students investigated feel motivated or not in their EFLclasses?
Around 70% feel motivated, but 9th graders report lower motivation due to discipline issues and repetitive lessons.
Research Question 2: What is motivation for the adolescent students` English teachersinvestigated?
Teachers describe motivation as an inner drive visible through participation, enthusiasm, and positive body language.
Research Question 1: What is motivation for the adolescent students investigated?
Students view motivation as a stimulus that encourages them to learn. Most enjoy English classes, associating them with future success, travel, and career opportunities. Activities involving videos, music, and games are seen as highly motivating.
he purpose of this chapter is to present the results of the analysis of the data collected, which camefrom students’ questionnaires,
This chapter presents findings from student questionnaires, teacher and coordinator interviews to understand adolescent students’ motivation toward English learning. The discussion follows the five research questions guiding the study.
Procedure – analyses and interpretations of the questionnaires and the interviews
Results were analyzed quantitatively (percentages) and qualitatively (student quotes and teacher comments) to illustrate motivational patterns and support interpretations.
Procedure – teachers’ and coordinators` semi-structured interviews
Individual interviews were audio-recorded in quiet school spaces, lasting 5–10 minutes each, to ensure reliability and comfort.
Procedure – students’ questionnaires
Administered during class time, the questionnaires were completed voluntarily and anonymously. The process took about 15–20 minutes, with the researcher available for clarification.
In the present investigation, two types of instruments were used: a questionnaire, administered to thestudents, and semi-structured interviews with the teachers and coordinators.
Two main instruments were used: student questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with teachers and coordinators.
The questionnaires assessed attitudes and motivation using both open- and closed-ended questions, tailored to each school context. Interviews provided qualitative insights into teaching experiences and school realities.
The coordinators
Two coordinators (C1, C2) provided insights into each school’s social and cultural environment, helping contextualize the findings. Both had education-related degrees and over five years of experience.
The English teachers
Four teachers participated (T1–T4), all with degrees in Portuguese-English Language and postgraduate training. Their teaching experience ranged from 2 to 10 years.
The students
Students ranged from 6th to 9th grade, aged 10–16, with a nearly equal gender balance. Both groups had two English classes weekly.
THE PARTICIPANTS
Participants included 2 coordinators, 4 English teachers, and 237 adolescent students (117 from the private school and 120 from the public one).
THE CLASSROOM CONTEXT
The study was conducted in two schools in Joinville, Brazil, one private (School 1) and one public (School 2). Both schools offer English classes twice a week to adolescents, but differ in socioeconomic background, resources, and teaching materials.
Therefore, the methodology employed on this study is based on qualitative methods.
The study uses a qualitative approach, which better captures the complex social, cultural, and psychological dynamics of learner motivation than quantitative methods.
human beings have to be considered active, reflective, critical and creative agents ofwhat surrounds them and of the information that they receive from others.
It reflects both internal drives and external social interactions, with learners seen as active, reflective agents shaped, but not determined, by their environment.
astidasArteaga (2006) thinks that approaching motivation from cognitive and socio-constructive views has more power toexplain this construct than pure cognitive theories.
Bastidas Arteaga (2006) defines it as a dynamic, interactive process involving beliefs, goals, and socio-cultural influences.
a socio-constructive approach can provide a framework forunderstanding motivation as a social process negotiated by the participants involved in an interaction event.
Motivation is viewed as a socially negotiated process influenced by both individual and contextual factors. The socio-constructivist approach links cognitive, social, and cultural dimensions, emphasizing that motivation emerges through interaction and engagement.
ornyei (2001b) discussed social motivation and the microcontext of learning, such as the school andthe class groups
Within classroom contexts, Dörnyei (2001b) identifies four principal socio-cultural factors influencing motivation: parental influence, teacher influence, group motivation, and school environment.
Bastidas Arteaga (2006), “socio-constructivism is not just one theory, but a group oftheories that refers to human cognitive development and students’ learning in the classroom.
Bastidas Arteaga (2006) elaborates that socio-constructivism encompasses a range of theories rooted in Vygotsky’s (1978) ideas about social learning.
individual’s motivation is alsosubject to social and contextual influences
From this view, motivation emerges from an individual’s personal goals and self-concept but is continually modified by social interactions, classroom dynamics, and cultural expectations.
Williams and Burden
Williams and Burden (1997, as cited in Dörnyei, 2001b) advocate for a socio-constructivist perspective on motivation, which recognizes that each learner’s motivation is shaped by both internal and external influences.
Breen
Breen (1998, as cited in Larsen-Freeman, 2000) also observes that mainstream SLA tends to reduce learning to a cognitive process between learner and linguistic input, thereby ignoring the broader social environment in which learning occurs.
Larsen-Freeman (2000) criticizes SLA research for not considering social reality or for beingdecontextualized.
Larsen-Freeman (2000) critiques traditional SLA research for overlooking this social dimension, arguing that studies often decontextualize language learning and fail to account for the real-world interactions and power dynamics that shape learner experiences.
Motivation to learn a language is a complex situation, as language learning is not only an educationalactivity, but also involves social and cultural issues (Dornyei, 2001b).
Language learning is not an isolated cognitive process but a deeply social and cultural experience.
Adolescents’ auditory comprehension appears to us significantly better than children’s and adults’,and their memory is able to save a greater number of words, which according to Krashen’s research (Basso, 2008),confirms that this phase is the turning point in the ability to learn languages
According to Basso (2008), puberty marks the point at which learners become capable of “working only with ideas, without the involvement of concrete references,” meaning they can reason abstractly and understand linguistic concepts beyond surface-level memorization.
he psychologist Luziriaga (as cited in Basso, 2008) explains that adolescents have moments of totaldisconnection, separation, rejection of the proposed content, generated by the qualitative change in cognition, sointense and profound that forces them to retreat, unconsciously
Luzuriaga (as cited in Basso, 2008) further explains that adolescents may temporarily reject or withdraw from learning content as a protective mechanism. The intensity of cognitive and emotional transformation during this stage can overwhelm the individual, forcing moments of retreat to maintain psychological balance.
Adolescence can be described as an age of transition, confusion, self-consciousness, growing, andchanging bodies and minds.
Adolescence is often characterized as an age of transition, instability, and self-discovery. Reed et al. (2004) describe this stage as one of confusion, self-consciousness, and constant negotiation between dependence and independence.
Chamber’s study also pointed out theimportance of communication and cooperation with the students. According to him, “teachers must listen to theirstudents” (p. 150).
Chambers (1993, as cited in Dörnyei, 2001b) found that some learners’ demotivation originated from home environments or previous negative language-learning experiences.
Gorham and Christophel (1992, as cited in Dornyei, 2001b, p.145)presented a rank order of the frequency of the various demotives mentioned by learners
Gorham and Christophel (1992, as cited in Dörnyei, 2001b, p. 145) identified the most common demotivators reported by students, including dissatisfaction with grading and assignments, the teacher being perceived as boring or unprepared, a general dislike for the subject, poor organization of teaching materials, and teachers being unapproachable or biased.
rather salient in learning environments and that teachers have a considerable responsibility inthis respec
language-learning failure is a “salient phenomenon,” and the study of its causes is often directly related to demotivation.
demotivation
Although motivation has long been recognized as one of the key determinants of successful language learning, demotivation, its counterpart, remains an equally important yet understudied phenomenon in second language acquisition (SLA).
Thereis no doubt that teacher motivation is an important factor in understanding the affective basis of instructed SLA,since “the teacher’s motivation has significant bearings on the students’ motivational disposition and, moregenerally, on their learning achievement”
Motivation in language learning is multifaceted, shaped by personal goals, self-perceptions, and the social environment. Rather than being a fixed trait, it evolves continually as learners interact with their teachers, peers, and cultural surroundings.
Teacher motivation also plays a key role, as a teacher’s enthusiasm, feedback, and cultural sensitivity directly influence students’ engagement and persistence in language learning.
The language level refers to such aspects of L2 culture and community, and their“intellectual and pragmatic values and benefits” for the learner (Dornyei, 2001a, p. 19
Dörnyei (2001b) emphasized the teacher’s central role, suggesting that motivation can be actively developed through strategies such as building rapport, setting achievable goals, and providing relevant feedback. He viewed motivation as dynamic and context-dependent, fluctuating based on classroom atmosphere and learner experiences.
Finochiaro`s (1989) opinion is that motivationis not either extrinsic or intrinsic; or instrumental or integrative; and it does not depend solely on the learner’saptitude, personality, or learning strategies.
Finnochiaro (1989) critiqued the earlier models for oversimplifying motivation into dual categories. He argued that motivation is not purely intrinsic or extrinsic but emerges from a blend of personal, social, and classroom-related factors, especially from positive teacher–student relationships and supportive learning environments.
. Brown (1994) also defines the classification in extrinsic and intrinsic motivation as the “mostpowerful dimension of the whole motivation construct” (p. 155).
Brown (1994, 2001), refined these ideas by distinguishing intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, emphasizing that they differ from integrative and instrumental orientations.
Some Cognitive Definitions
Cognitive approaches, in contrast, emphasize internal drives and decision-making processes. Theories such as Maslow’s (1970) hierarchy of needs and Hunt’s (1971) self-control theory highlight the importance of autonomy, goal-setting, and self-fulfillment in sustaining motivation. These models suggest that motivation is strongest when learners have control over their actions and perceive learning as personally meaningful.
A Behavioristic Definition: a behavioristic psychologist would stress the role of rewards (andperhaps punishments) in motivating behavio
In SLA, intrinsic motivation refers to enjoyment of learning itself, while extrinsic motivation is linked to external rewards.
the construct of motivatio
Motivation has been defined behavioristically (reward-driven), cognitively (goal- and self-driven), and humanistically (as a hierarchy of needs).
Formal situations refer primarily to classroom settings, whereas informal situations refer to languageacquisition contexts where learning is incidental.
Motivation interacts with both formal (classroom) and informal (social) learning contexts, influencing linguistic and emotional outcomes.
instrumental,
Instrumental: Desire to gain practical benefits like jobs or grades.
integrative
Integrative: Desire to connect with the target language community.
In the area of second language education, motivational concerns occupy much of teachers’ attention,for example, when encouraging lazy students to work harder, making language classes more inspiring,supplementing dull teaching materials, analyzing the effects tests and exams have, and trying to find out howdifferent rewards and incentives wor
Gardner and Lambert’s socio-educational model became foundational, emphasizing that learners’ attitudes toward the target language and its speakers shape their motivation and outcomes.
ocus on the individual and their minor concern for the role of the social context in the learning andmotivational processes.
Overall, while cognitive theories highlighted internal processes, they were later criticized for overlooking social and environmental influences.
Social psychological theorie
Attitudes toward social groups and cultural contexts influence motivation.
Self-determination theor
Motivation lies on a continuum between intrinsic (self-driven) and extrinsic (externally influenced) factors, with autonomy at its core.
Goal theories:
Behavior is guided by goal-setting and achievement orientations (mastery vs. performance).
Expectancy-value theories
Motivation depends on expected success and the value of that success.
raditionally, motivation was viewed in terms of volition, will, instinct, drive, or need, whichrepresented a rationalist tendency of looking at psychological processes. The advent of behaviorist psychologyproduced a decline of theories that linked motivation with some inner force and linked motivation to some outerforce, instead
Early theories viewed motivation as driven by instincts or needs, but behaviorism shifted the focus to external reinforcement. Later, cognitive psychology emphasized internal processes, such as beliefs, expectations, and goals, as key to motivation.
motivation is responsible for why people decide to do something, how long they are willing to sustainthe activity, and how hard they are going to pursue it” (Dornyei, 2001a, p. 8)
Emphasizes that despite theoretical confusion, motivation consistently emerges as a decisive factor in language learning success.
motivation is responsible for why people decide to do something, how long they are willing to sustainthe activity, and how hard they are going to pursue it” (Dornyei, 2001a, p. 8)
Emphasizes that despite theoretical confusion, motivation consistently emerges as a decisive factor in language learning success.
concerns the direction and magnitude ofhuman behavior, that is the choice of a particular action, the persistence with it, and the effort expended on it
Defines motivation as the direction and intensity of human behavior, determining choice, persistence, and effort in learning.
MOTIVATIONAL ASPECTS
Provides an overview of theories of motivation in psychology and education.
Given that individual motives rise andfall over time, motivation can be conceptualized as a motive which gives behavior its energy and direction
Motivation is dynamic and can be enhanced through teacher intervention, underscoring the teacher’s role in shaping student engagement and identity formation in language learning.
Learners’ variables can be broadly classified as cognitive and affective.
Differentiates between cognitive (aptitude, memory) and affective (motivation, attitude) dimensions.
Affective And Cognitive Factors and the Individual Differences
Examines motivation, empathy, anxiety, and self-esteem as critical affective variables shaping SLA outcomes.
L2 learnerswhose exposure to the L2 begins in adolescence/early adulthood are considered more efficient and successful thanyounger learners
Contrasts early learners’ long-term proficiency with adolescents’ faster short-term progress.
ven in L1 acquisition there is aso called ‘critical period’ for language development, which is a “limited phase in development of an organismduring which a particular activity or competency must be acquired if it is to be incorporated into the behavior of
Refers to the Critical Period Hypothesis, which suggests that learning after puberty becomes more challenging, but argues adolescents can still succeed due to cognitive maturity.
The Age Factor – the learning process in adolescence
Explores how adolescence as a developmental phase influences language acquisition.
adolescent students are usually insecure and vulnerabledue to the physical, social, and affective changes they are undergoing
Adolescents’ affective instability and insecurity are noted as potential barriers to engagement if not addressed by teachers.
The author emphasizes the ones that “lie inside the learner” (p. 525), theaffective and the cognitive factors, considering the role of individual differences
Emphasizes individual differences—especially age—and their impact on learning success.
Factors Involved in a SLA Proces
Discusses social, cognitive, and affective factors (Ellis, 2005).
, present aspects related to motivation and to variablesassociated to learners’ individual differences, aspects which are crucial in the process of second languageacquisition.
Motivation and learner attitude are presented as central to success in acquiring a second language.
Behaviorism, the first theory that accounted for SLA, is a theory of animal and human behavior,which “attempts to explain behavior without reference to mental events or internal processes
Reviews foundational SLA theories, Behaviorism and Krashen’s Monitor Theory, highlighting how affective and environmental factors (like anxiety, comfort, and feedback) influence learning outcomes.
this research may help us to have a better understanding of adolescent students’ motivation andbehavior in class and it may also reveal how motivation can influence their overall performance
The research aims to uncover how teenagers and their teachers perceive motivation in class and what factors foster or hinder it. Five guiding research questions focus on student and teacher perceptions of motivation and motivational triggers.
adolescent students, there is usually a consensus among teacherssuggesting that that kind of students lacks motivation, being most of the times noisy, absent-minded, rude,aggressive, tiring and apathetic
The chapter emphasizes that teachers often misinterpret adolescents as apathetic due to not understanding developmental and affective differences.
the present study aims at filling a gap in the area of motivation involving adolescents inthe foreign language classroom
Lacerda identifies a research gap: the lack of studies specifically examining adolescent motivation in EFL (English as a Foreign Language) classrooms at the elementary level.
study here proposed is about the adolescent learners’ motivation towards their English classesand it aims at investigating whether and/or how biological, cognitive, social, and motivational aspects can interferein their process of learning a foreign language
The study investigates how biological, cognitive, social, and motivational factors influence teenage students’ motivation to learn English in Brazil.
Attrition and Drift in Access, Production, and Perception Theory (ADAPPT
The authors also reference the ADAPPT model (De Leeuw & Chang, 2024), which views bilingual language systems as constantly changing rather than reaching a final stable state.
language development proceeds dynamically and in a nonlinear fashion,such that even small variations in one part of the system may lead to differences in outcome (DeBot et al., 2007).
The findings support a Dynamic Systems Theory (DST) approach: language systems evolve in complex, nonlinear ways, influenced by both internal (cross-language interaction) and external (social and emotional) factors.
explained against the background of the category precision hypothesis proposed in the revised ver-sion of the SLM (Flege & Bohn, 2021).
Using the SLM-revised (Flege & Bohn, 2021), the authors explain this through the Category Precision Hypothesis: speakers with more precise L1 categories can more easily form new, accurate L2 ones.
the case that nativelike categories in both languages can be established and main-tained under certain circumstances, possibly also in response to additional factors, such as years ofL2-immersion/experience, linguistic input, and age at first exposure to the L2.
This suggests that both languages can develop robust, native-like categories simultaneously, depending on factors like exposure, experience, and L2 learning age.
, one hypoth-esis is that an increased L2 proficiency is likely to cause L1 proficiency to decline
Traditional theories predict that better L2 pronunciation causes L1 attrition, but this study found the opposite: bilinguals who produced nativelike L2 vowels also maintained nativelike L1 vowels.
future studies need to more closely explore other cognitive skills associated with languagelearning aptitude, such as grammatical sensitivity, memory capacity or associative memory (i.e.,the ability to remember new words)
The authors suggest that future research should investigate other cognitive factors (e.g., memory, grammatical sensitivity) and sociolinguistic influences.
sound discrimination aptitude had no significant effects on the native-likeness of /a-æ/, /ɪ/, and /u-ʊ/ productions.
Sound discrimination aptitude (a measure of phonetic ability) did not significantly predict production accuracy.
This implies that external factors, like exposure, input quality, and language prestige, may play a larger role than cognitive aptitude in shaping bilingual pronunciation.
English is not only widely spoken—both as a native and even moreso as a second or foreign language—but also frequently encountered in different media, and ineducational and professional contexts.
On average, bilinguals’ English vowels were more nativelike than their Arabic ones, possibly because of English’s global status and frequent exposure through media, education, and communication.
, the findings of our study do not allow for broadconclusions regarding the relationship between production and perception in bilinguals’ L1/L2
The study also discusses how perception and production might relate, but concludes that more research, especially on vowel perception, is needed to clarify this connection.
We also found that F2-Bark of English/ʊ/ in an isolated condition was affected in one of the bilingual groups, such that the English-Arabic bilinguals produced L2 /u/ with F2-Bark-values outside the monolingual Arabic norm(–successful acquisition) while maintaining nativelike values in their L1 (–L1 attrition). TheArabic-English bilinguals, by contrast, produced both vowels in a nativelike fashion (+ successfulacquisition, –L1attrition)
Results showed cross-language interactions affected vowels differently: ・For /ɪ/ and /u-ʊ/, bilinguals showed deviations from monolingual norms, but the direction of change differed by group. ・The vowel /a-æ/ was produced natively in both languages, suggesting that clear perceptual distance between L1 and L2 sounds helps bilinguals maintain separate categories.
These results align with the Speech Learning Model (SLM), which states that more distinct L1-L2 sounds are easier to separate and learn accurately.
summary.
・Bilinguals differed somewhat from monolinguals, especially for /u–ʊ/, suggesting slight L1 influence but not full attrition. ・English /ʊ/ generally produced more natively than Arabic /u/. ・No effect of sound discrimination aptitude on these vowels.
Individual differences
For F1-Bark, English vowels were more target-like than Arabic vowels.
For F2-Bark, no significant effects — aptitude didn’t influence vowel nativeness.
F2-Bark
F2-Bark model: ・Main effect of speaker group and significant interactions: １．Speaker group × speaking condition: E–A bilinguals had higher F2-Bark than monolinguals in isolation. Monolinguals showed higher F2-Bark in sentences, but E–A bilinguals showed the opposite (lower F2-Bark).
２．Speaker group × language: ・E–A bilinguals had higher F2-Bark for Arabic /u/ than monolinguals. ・Within E–A bilinguals, Arabic /u/ had higher F2-Bark than English /ʊ/.
F1-Bark
F1-Bark model: Main effects of speaker group (bilinguals > monolinguals) and speaking condition (sentences > isolation).
Experimental manipulations
・Arabic /u/ showed a wider spread than English /ʊ/. ・Bilinguals’ Arabic /u/ had higher F1 and F2 than monolinguals — meaning the tongue was higher and more back.
speaking condition by language interaction,
Interactions: ・For speaker group × language, both bilingual groups had higher F1-Bark for Arabic /ɪ/ than monolinguals, and E–A bilinguals produced Arabic /ɪ/ higher than English /ɪ/. ・For speaking condition × language, Arabic /ɪ/ was higher in sentences than isolation.
post hoc comparisons showed only that the E-A bilinguals’ F1-Bark valuesare significantly higher compared with monolinguals.
Significant effects: ・Speaker group: E–A bilinguals had higher F1-Bark than monolinguals.
Experimental manipulation
Arabic /ɪ/ had a wider spread and was produced higher than English /ɪ/.
/a/-/æ/ summary
Arabic /a/ produced with higher tongue position than English /æ/.
Bilinguals’ productions were native-like in both languages (no L1 attrition).
No influence of aptitude, but a positive connection between L1 and L2 nativeness for tongue height in sentences.
L2 acquisition, L1 attrition relationship
Correlations between native-likeness in L1 and L2 were positive, but only significant for F1-Bark in the sentence condition, meaning that bilinguals with more native-like L2 /æ/ also had more native-like L1 /a/ in tongue height.
Experimental manipulations
Experimental manipulations: ・Arabic /a/ had higher F1-Bark (tongue lower) than English /æ/. ・Speaking condition mattered — vowels in sentences had higher F1-Bark than in isolation (tongue lower in connected speech). ・No significant effect on F2-Bark (tongue frontness).
Figure 1
Results showed:
Arabic F1 and F2 values were higher than Alghamdi’s (1998), likely because this study included mostly female speakers (women tend to have higher formant values).
English vowels were less peripheral than Deterding’s (1997) because this study included both isolated words and sentences (more natural speech).
compare the F1/F2 vowel space for /a-æ/, /ɪ/ and /u-ʊ/ of our bilingual and monolingualspeaker groups with published reference values
The authors compared their vowel measurements with earlier studies to check consistency.
Arabic reference: Alghamdi (1998) — male Saudi speakers.
English reference: Deterding (1997) — Standard Southern British English (SSBE) speakers.
RQ4
Acquisition–attrition link (RQ4): Pearson correlations tested whether more nativelike L2 vowels were associated with less nativelike L1 vowels (i.e., possible trade-off).
sound discrimination
Sound discrimination (RQ3): For bilinguals only, models tested whether higher sound discrimination aptitude correlated with more nativelike vowel production (smaller distance from monolingual norms).
“Distance-from-norm” calculated as absolute difference between each bilingual’s formant value and the monolingual mean.
three sets of analyses in R
Main analyses (RQs 1–2): Linear mixed-effects models (using lme4) tested effects of language, speaker group, and speaking condition on F1-Bark and F2-Bark.
two measures
Resulting normalized measures: ・F1-Bark → vowel height ・F2-Bark → vowel frontness
formant analy-ses of F1 and F2,
Analyzed formant frequencies F1 (vowel height) and F2 (vowel frontness) using Praat.
Formant values measured at the vowel midpoint and normalized using the Bark Difference Method (Syrdal & Gopal, 1986; McCloy, 2016) to eliminate physiological variation.
total of 1,608vowel productions (
Total data: 1,608 vowel productions (798 Arabic, 810 English).
Monolinguals
Monolinguals: Completed only the production task in their native language.
collected data in Saudi Arabia and in the United Kingdom
Data collected in Saudi Arabia and the UK through three sessions for bilinguals: 1. L2 proficiency and sound discrimination test 2. Arabic vowel recording session 3. English vowel recording session (within one week)
Recording setup: Participants read words in isolation and in sentences, 3 repetitions per word per condition, recorded with a digital voice recorder.
tested their ability to recognize the newly learned wordsin a total of 30 spoken utterances,
Task: Participants learned 3 Cantonese words and identified them in 30 test utterances.
dapted version of Part V—Sound Discrimination of the Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery
Used an adapted Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB) Part V to measure sound discrimination aptitude, a component of language learning aptitude.
Participants learned and recognized new sounds in Cantonese, a language unfamiliar to them, to test pure sound discrimination ability without interference from known languages.
Language background questionnaire
Collected data on demographics, education, language instruction, qualifications, and frequency of L1/L2 use across different social contexts (family, friends, work).
Vowel productions
Target vowels: short vowels /a-æ/, /ɪ/, and /u-ʊ/ in both Arabic and English.
Rationale: Used a controlled reading task (instead of spontaneous speech) to ensure equal numbers of repetitions, consistent phonetic contexts (/hVd/), and reduced coarticulation effects.
Conditions: Each word produced 3 times in isolation and 3 times in a carrier phrase; speaking condition later analyzed as a variable.
Priming: Real words containing the same vowel were used to activate intended categories (e.g., would, could, hood).
Participants
Groups: 4 groups of 15 participants each — Arabic-English (A-E) bilinguals, English-Arabic (E-A) bilinguals, Arabic monolinguals, and English monolinguals.
Monolinguals: Served as control groups; matched by education, region, and age. None spoke additional languages.
All groups were similar in age and gender distribution, though bilingual groups differed slightly but significantly in age of arrival (AoA) and length of residence (LoR).
Research questions
The study explores how L2 acquisition and L1 attrition interact, and whether sound discrimination aptitude affects this relationship. * RQ1: How nativelike are the bilinguals’ L2 vowel productions? * RQ2: Do the bilinguals show L1 vowel attrition? * RQ3: Are differences in vowel production related to sound discrimination aptitude? * RQ4: Do native-like L2 vowels correspond to nonnative L1 vowels, and vice versa?
we explored if increased sound discrimination aptitude may berelated to more nativelike L1/L2 vowel productions in our bilingual speaker groups.
This study does not test perception directly, but examines whether general sound discrimination aptitude predicts how accurately bilinguals produce vowels. (The aptitude test used an unfamiliar language (Cantonese) to avoid bias from prior language knowledge.)
L1 attrition, speech perception studies have assessed bilinguals’ abilities toaccurately perceive L1 sounds
In L2 acquisition, being able to distinguish L2 sounds from similar L1 sounds is crucial for accurate production.
In L1 attrition, perception of L1 sounds can decline due to L2 influence.
Sound discrimination aptitude
Defined as the ability to identify and store new sounds in long-term memory; part of language learning aptitude (Carroll, 1971). Strong phonemic coding ability supports accurate pronunciation, while low ability can hinder it.
Individuals may differ from each other in terms of successful L2 acquisition and L1 maintenance
Bilinguals differ in L2 acquisition success and L1 maintenance due to cognitive, motivational, and attitudinal factors. This study investigates whether sound discrimination aptitude (a cognitive ability) affects vowel production accuracy.
vowel length is phonemic in Arabic
Arabic vowel length is phonemic, and long vowels are more peripheral than short ones.
The analysis centers on short vowels that are phonetically similar between Arabic and English: /a–æ/, /ɪ/, and /u–ʊ/.
SSBE
SSBE: 6 short vowels, 5 long vowels, and 8 diphthongs; vowel quality and duration distinguish short and long vowels.
arget varieties in our study
The study focuses on Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) and Standard Southern British English (SSBE).
investigated L1 and L2 vowel productions in two groups of advanced latebilinguals, namely, Arabic-English (A-E) and English-Arabic (E-A) bilinguals
This study examines both processes in Arabic-English (A-E) and English-Arabic (E-A) late bilinguals, both long-term immersed in the L2 country.
It analyzes short vowel production to explore how acquisition and attrition interact and whether achieving native-like pronunciation in one language reduces it in the other.
still asmall number of studies that explore how acquisition and attrition are related by comparing L1 andL2 speech production
Gap of current study: few studies directly compare L1 attrition and L2 acquisition in the same bilinguals.
presence of an L2 system might leadto changes in the realization of L1 vowels
Research shows bilinguals’ L1 vowels can shift closer to or further from their L2 vowels.
Speech Learning Model
The Speech Learning Model (SLM) explains this through two processes: 1. Category assimilation – when similar L1 and L2 sounds merge, preventing accurate L2 production. 2. Category dissimilation – when similar sounds are exaggerated apart, leading to distinct but nonnative categories.
These processes can affect both L2 and L1 speech. Changes in the first language (L1) due to L2 influence are known as L1 phonetic attrition.
Many vowel production studies have shown that late L2 learners, despite prolonged L2-learningexperience, often fail to produce L2 vowels with nativelike acoustic feature
Many studies show that even advanced second-language (L2) learners struggle to produce L2 vowels that sound native-like.
core questions in second language acquisition research such as the critical period debate,the representational deficit issue, the interface hypothesis
Collectively, these studies show that attrition research enriches debates in SLA, including critical periods, representational deficits, and the interface hypothesis. They emphasize attrition as primarily a psycholinguistic process affecting processing and access rather than permanent structural loss.
Perpiñán addresses another question that has been controversially discussed in languageattrition research, namely the issue of whether attrition is strictly confined to interface phenomena, orwhether it can also affect core syntax
Perpiñán analyzes Spanish L1 speakers in the U.S. and finds attrition can affect pragmatically constrained syntax, supporting Sorace’s Interface Hypothesis. Core syntax remains stable, but interface areas show emerging optionality in production.
She presents the casestudy of a woman who was adopted from Guatemala by US-American parents, who stronglydiscouraged any use of Spanish.
Montrul presents a case study of a Guatemalan adoptee re-learning Spanish, showing that early but interrupted exposure does not guarantee full language recovery. Age, motivation, and attitudes strongly influence the extent of retention and relearning success.
She investigates to what degree syntactically complex sentence patterns, namely the various types ofembedding used in Turkish, survive across long periods of residence in an L2 setting.
Yılmaz examines morphologically complex embeddings in Turkish among late bilinguals and finds overuse of the most complex structure. Social and cultural factors had little effect, but education level emerged as a predictor of variation.
Gürel & Yılmaz investigate the binding properties of overt and null subject pronouns in L1 Turkish.The experiment reported here replicates Gürel’s earlier (2002, 2004) investigation of this phenomenonin an L2 English setting in Canada
This study investigates subject pronoun interpretation among Turkish bilinguals in the Netherlands, finding consistent restructuring compared to monolingual controls. Results show that bilinguals often default to canonical interpretations, suggesting attrition leads to new preference patterns rather than total loss.
attrition is the outcome of two systems of linguistic knowledge interacting, to some degree, inlanguage processing during production and compréhension, and does not change the underlyingknowledge system.
The authors provide a state-of-the-art overview, situating attrition apart from intergenerational language shift and contact linguistics. They contends that attrition in late bilinguals is best explained as competition between two languages with different activation levels, affecting access rather than underlying grammar.
Traditionally, the study of language attrition — roughly defined as language ‘loss’ in bilingualindividuals1’— has often been regarded as a subfield of language contact, language change andlanguage death rather than as a matter of language acquisition and bilingualism
Schmid and Köpke (Intro) argue that language attrition should be understood as part of bilingualism and second language acquisition, rather than simply language death or change. They highlight Grosjean’s holistic view of bilinguals and present attrition as a psycholinguistic phenomenon driven by interaction between two linguistic systems.
future research would clearlybenefit from widening the range of tasks to include more challenging and open-ended productiontasks
The reliance on picture-based narratives may have limited insights into advanced learners’ lexis and complexity. Future research should include varied tasks and investigate specific features like morphosyntactic agreement.
The period of SA with its richer opportunities for interaction madeit possible for these relatively advanced instructed learners to quickly proceduralize/automatizethis store of knowledge through immediate opportunities for meaningful practice, as suggestedby DeKeyser
Findings suggest that study abroad accelerates fluency and lexis through meaningful practice, while accuracy and complexity develop more gradually. Differences between French and Spanish learners were linked to prior instruction and levels of local engagement.
significant correlations
The study found strong, lasting links between fluency and lexis, while relationships with accuracy and complexity were less stable. Context seemed to influence whether learners prioritized grammar (classroom) or communication (abroad).
Syntactic complexity
Complexity increased early in the stay abroad but stabilized afterward, particularly for French learners. Spanish learners showed gradual ongoing improvements, with further increases once back in the instructed setting.
Syntactic complexity
Complexity increased early in the stay abroad but stabilized afterward, particularly for French learners. Spanish learners showed gradual ongoing improvements, with further increases once back in the instructed setting.
Accuracy
Accuracy improved during the sojourn, especially for Spanish learners, though French learners showed a ceiling effect. Post-sojourn, accuracy continued to rise for Spanish learners but plateaued for French learners.
Lexis
Lexical diversity rose sharply after the move abroad but leveled off mid-sojourn, likely due to routinization of experiences. Scores increased again upon return to the classroom, suggesting that context strongly shapes lexical growth.
Fluency
The study shows that fluency improved significantly during study abroad, particularly in speech rate and mean length of run, with Spanish learners gaining more than French learners. Gains were mostly maintained after returning to the classroom, though with slight declines.
the results of parametric tests
The data, normally distributed, were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVAs, correlations, and effect sizes. This statistical approach highlighted within- and between-group differences over time, providing robust evidence of developmental trends.
used measures of syntactic complexity
Syntactic complexity was analyzed through mean length of AS-units and the ratio of clauses to AS-units. Protocols ensured reliability, with CLAN software used to calculate results, allowing nuanced comparisons between French and Spanish learners.
two broadmeasures of accuracy:
Accuracy was measured through the percentage of error-free AS-units and clauses. Errors included issues with morphology, word choice, agreement, and syntax, but mispronunciations not affecting grammar were excluded to focus strictly on linguistic accuracy.
two broadmeasures of accuracy:
Accuracy was measured through the percentage of error-free AS-units and clauses. Errors included issues with morphology, word choice, agreement, and syntax, but mispronunciations not affecting grammar were excluded to focus strictly on linguistic accuracy.
Lexis was operationalized as lexical diversity
Lexical diversity was operationalized using the D score, calculated with CLAN’s VocD command. This measure captured the range of vocabulary used, with higher D values indicating richer lexical variety.
Oral fluency
Oral fluency was assessed through speech rate and mean length of run, with PRAAT and ELAN used for measurement. Trained coders counted syllables and resolved discrepancies collaboratively, ensuring reliable data on learners’ overall fluency abilities.
Transcription accuracy
Transcriptions were checked by multiple team members and morphosyntactically tagged with software, then manually corrected.→ rigorous preparation ensured reliability for subsequent linguistic analysis.
ASUs were defined following Foster et al. (2000, p.365): “asingle speaker’s utterance consisting of an independent clause or subclausal unit, together withany subordinate clause(s) associated with eithe
All narratives were digitally recorded, transcribed using CHAT conventions, and segmented into Analysis of Speech Units (ASUs).
picture-based stories in either French or Spanish which were narrated byparticipants at each data collection point
Narratives were central for measuring CAFL because they offered consistent, comparable evidence across time.
Three structurally similar stories were rotated to minimize familiarity bias, with each repeated a year later. This controlled design ensured validity in tracking fluency, accuracy, complexity, and lexis development.
a range of tasks
Tasks included oral interviews, written essays, and picture-based narratives, alongside receptive and productive proficiency tests. Native speakers provided comparison baselines to validate results.
The study included six testing points over 21-months: Presojourn in the UK (May 2011),Insojourn1 abroad (October 2011), Insojourn2 abroad (February 2012), Insojourn3 abroad (May2012), Postsojourn1 in the UK (October 2012), and Postsojourn2 in the UK (February 2013)
Six data collection points spanned 21 months, including pre-sojourn, three in-sojourn, and two post-sojourn stages.
Participants
Participants: ・The study recruited 56 advanced learners (29 French, 27 Spanish majors) from a UK university, all preparing for a third-year abroad. ・Participants had extensive classroom learning histories and strong motivation to improve language skills, with placements as interns, assistants, or exchange students across France, Spain, and Mexico. ・Differences in housing and daily interaction shaped their exposure to target languages.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The researchers focus on two guiding questions: (1) how CAFL patterns evolve before, during, and after SA, and (2) how relationships among CAFL elements change over time.
oralfluency and lexis would improve the most during SA, and also that gains in these domains wouldbe evident early on in the sojourn.
It predicts strong gains in fluency and lexis, with tentative expectations for accuracy and syntactic complexity due to participants’ advanced proficiency and extended stay abroad.
The current study begins to address the issues identified above by (i) investigating advancedlevel L2 French and L2 Spanish learners’ CAFL development over 21 months including a nine-month stay abroad; and (ii) investigating the extent to which relationships among CAFLelements change over time in L2 speech.
The study investigates how advanced learners of French and Spanish develop in terms of complexity, accuracy, fluency, and lexis (CAFL) over 21 months, including a nine-month study abroad (SA) period.
A major challenge for L2 research is how to explain the patterns of linguistic developmentresulting from SA, including repeated observations that the linguistic benefits of SA appearselective
Skill Acquisition Theory (SAT) explains SA outcomes: fluency benefits stem from meaning-focused practice, while accuracy and complexity grow more slowly through instruction.
Contexts drive “trade-offs”: SA favors fluency, while classrooms favor accuracy/complexity.
studies are needed that document in more detailthe emergence and development of CAFL relationships over the course of SA.
Previous studies often use short-term, before-and-after designs, which overlook development trajectories and relationships between fluency, accuracy, complexity, and lexis (CAFL). More longitudinal data across different stages is needed.
length of prior classroom study and pre-departure proficiencyplay an important role in explaining both the rate of fluency gains during SA and theirmaintenance afterwards
Prior proficiency and program length play critical roles, with advanced learners benefiting most.
Research broadly confirms the widespread belief that SA benefits oral fluency
Findings show SA improves oral fluency and vocabulary more than classroom instruction, though gains for accuracy and syntactic complexity are less consistent.
this gap
Gap: most research focuses on North American undergraduates with little prior instruction, leaving advanced learners underexplored.
the role of prior linguistic knowledge in understanding the nature andextent of linguistic development during SA is not well understood
The study highlights the importance of documenting learners’ linguistic abilities before, during, and after study abroad (SA) to see how context shapes L2 development.
We are very far from having squared this particular circle.
Her findings point to a gap in understanding how subjective perceptions of loss differ from objective retention, opening the door for future studies on learner identity and motivation in language maintenance.
quantitative studies of multilingual development are faced with a very substantial methodological problem: the huge number of factors which influence the developmental success of any individual language learner means that meaningful insights can really only be gained by means of very large cohorts.
Schmid argues that attrition research faces a trade-off between sample size and depth of measurement.
The fact that length of time and amount of exposure do not seem to play an explanatory role for language attrition may seem counterintuitive; however, it is entirely in line with what other studies of the attrition of both native and second languages have found
Results showed that learners’ self-perceived decline was significant over time, but actual grammar and vocabulary scores did not decrease. This suggests language knowledge is more resilient than commonly assumed, though confidence and use may erode.
We therefore asked our participants, before giving them an assessment of their grammatical and vocabulary knowledge of French, to complete a survey comprising a broad range of questions relating to the length (in years) and intensity
Her team studied nearly 500 participants who had taken French GCSEs or A-levels between 1–63 years prior, combining surveys, self-assessments, and formal tests. They used PCA and regression modeling to identify key predictors such as exposure, attitudes, and estimated end-state proficiency.
There are two possible solutions to this problem.
Schmid highlights two solutions: longitudinal studies or retrospective reconstruction using learner history and attitudes.
One of the main reasons for this lacuna is methodological: early research results seem to suggest that studying foreign language attrition necessitates covering a very long period of time - at least decades, as language knowledge seems to be far more resilient to forgetting than virtually any other type of abstract skill.
The article emphasizes the difficulty of measuring attrition over long time spans, since baseline proficiency at the end of instruction is usually unknown.
Many such studies over the past decades have helped us understand in much more detail how second language (L2) learning takes place, what factors facilitate it, and what potential barriers there are.
Prior studies have contributed to discoveries related to second language acquisition process.
Monika S. Schmid describes some of the problems encountered in quantitative investigations of second language attrition
Schmid introduces second language attrition as the relatively new field concerned with how language knowledge deteriorates once learners stop practicing. She contrasts the predictability of first language acquisition with the extreme variability of foreign language learning and forgetting.
Language programs that include cultural teachings andcultural involvement may be more successful in language revitalization
Programs for revitalization: Suggests language programs should integrate cultural teachings and practices.
Role of elders: Elders are critical for transmission as they are most fluent; urgency for revitalization efforts.
future research should investigate how language knowledge oracquisition may lead to improved health
Future research suggestions: investigate how language acquisition may lead to improved health.
it would be beneficialto first seek qualitative knowledge that deciphers the role language plays in healthybehaviors.
Need for qualitative research: Before heavy reliance on quantitative data, qualitative methods should clarify language’s role in health behaviors.
we do not know if language usefacilitates participation in the cultural and spiritual activities, or if these activities encouragethe development of the language
Unclear causality: Unsure if language use promotes cultural involvement or vice versa → likely both.
strong connection betweenculture and language proficiency
Strong language-culture link: Language proficiency tied closely to cultural participation, both key for health and wellness.
broad range of questions todig into spirituality and culture.
Strengths: ・Range of questions: Survey covered diverse aspects of culture and spirituality, both general and locally relevant. ・Participant flexibility: Open-ended items allowed respondents to interpret and share their own cultural meanings.
heinterviewer, even if trained in oral interview methods, must be consistent to make the testreliable across all subjects.
Reliability challenges in interviews: Interviewers must be consistent and fluent in the Indigenous language to ensure reliable results.
deficits in the way we, as researchers, perceive and measure health.
Researcher limitations: Risk that researchers underestimate Indigenous concepts of language, culture, and health.
Survey questionnaires cannot capture the many contexts in which language is used
Survey constraints: Questionnaires cannot capture full complexity/context of Indigenous language use (home, academic, spiritual).
Self-report questions were used to measure language, and more thorough or extensivemeasures would help improve our understanding of language and its relationship to cultureand health
Self-report bias: Language measured through self-reports, which are less reliable; more robust measures (oral interviews) would be better.
limited to adults living with diabetes sampled fromclinic records.
Limited generalizability: Findings only apply to adults with diabetes who sought services at tribal clinics → sample may not represent the wider population.
Both spiritual and cultural activities have important implications for health and healing
Health implications: cultural/spiritual participation associated with lower alcohol abuse, stronger resilience, and improved mental health.
Both spiritual and cultural activities have important implications for health and healing
Health implications: cultural/spiritual participation associated with lower alcohol abuse, stronger resilience, and improved mental health.
participating in spiritual activities andconsidering spiritual values important were both associated with greater languageproficiency.
Cultural and spiritual activities both reinforce and depend on language → cyclical relationship.
Being a fluent speaker was associated with being aged sixty-five years or more.
Elders remain main fluent speakers → intergenerational transmission endangered.
individuals currently living on the reservation spoke and understood thelanguage more than those who lived outside the reservation.
Understanding develops earlier than speaking → explains why childhood reservation living boosts comprehension more than fluency.
highlight and further delineate the strong connection between Indigenous language andcultural values and participation, and they provide the basis for future investigationsconsidering the relationship between language, cultural involvement, and health.
Language proficiency linked to cultural involvement: living by Ojibwe ways, participating in activities, valuing spirituality.
Results
１．Mean age: 56.5; ~44% below poverty line; majority female and college-educated.
２．Language proficiency: ・35% easily understood Ojibwe, ・6% fluent speakers, ・Higher proficiency among elders (65+) and those living on reservations.
３．Strong correlation: higher language proficiency = more cultural/spiritual participation & valuing traditional spiritual beliefs.
Culture
Culture: ・Traditional activities (17-item index; Cronbach’s α = .811). ・Spiritual activities (9-item index; Cronbach’s α = .791). ・Family cultural practices & spiritual values.