Individuals with BPD were diagnosed using DSM-IV criteria in semi-structured and clinical interviews; HC participants had no DSM-IV Axis I diagnoses or a family history of mood or psychotic disorders in first-degree relatives, based on parental interview.

GroupID: BPD
Dx: Bipolar Disorder
DxStandard: DSM-IV
DxMethod: semi-structured and clinical interviews

GroupID: HC
GroupCharacteristic: no DSM-IV Axis I diagnoses or a family history of mood or psychotic disorders in first-degree relatives, based on parental interview

diagnosis of psychosis (either with BPD or SZ) was based on lifetime history

In the case of BPD, the diagnosis was made if full DSM-IV diagnostic criteria were met BPD I (lifetime) with all subjects having clear cycles and meeting duration criteria

Exclusion criteria in both groups included presence of major sensorimotor handicaps; full-scale IQ < 70; presence of documented learning disabilities; history of claustrophobia, autism, anorexia, bulimia nervosa, alcohol or drug dependence or abuse (in the 2 months prior to the scan or total past history of 12 months or greater); active medical or neurological disease; presence of metal fragments or implants; history of electroconvulsive therapy; and current pregnancy or lactation.

HCs, with no DSM-IV Axis-I diagnosis on semistructured and clinical interviews, were recruited through local advertisements.

Youths aged 6–17 years, both male and female, and inpatient and outpatient were recruited through the McLean Hospital and Cambridge Health Alliance programs and through professional and patient advocacy groups.