Furthermore, Emersonwanted to determine how the disease was communicable and whether par-ticular people were prone to infection. Was leprosy contracted through sexualcontact or blood? Was it hereditary? Did poor hygiene, shared food, or bed-ding spread infection?
This sets the tone for the experiments that Emerson will no doubt conduct.
During a nearly three-year residence in Honolulu between 1884 and 1886,Arning conducted bacteriological research on people in Hawai‘i. At the sametime, Arning photographed hundreds of Hawaiians, Pacific Islanders,Japanese immigrants, and white settlers, concentrating his tireless ethno-graphic collecting and photography on Hawaiian people, practices, andmaterial culture (figure 8).10 He photographed approximately twenty-sixindividual leprosy patients at the same Kaka‘ako Branch Hospital whereEmerson had conducted exams and patient interviews a few years prior. Oneof these patients was a Hawaiian girl whom Arning identified as EsterKanepuu. He included her as an example of “lepra anesthetic,” or anestheticleprosy, in his photograph albums (figure 9).11 Arning went on to refine histechniques and bring these photographs back to Germany
Arning takes a very scientific approach to his work, methodically performing his research and working with patients one on one.
All immigrants, including Europeans,were requiredby U.S. law to provide photographic identification to immigra-tion officers in 1924, and were issued immigration identification in 1928.
This shows the effect that the Chinese-specific immigration policies had on the overall immigration system.
As slaves, African Americans were praised for their hard work, andpseudoscientists claimed studies showed that they were biologically morecapable than whites of performing long, arduous labor.
Pseudoscience was a major problem in this era. Non-scientific evidence was posed as being factual, and was used to promote and proliferate bigoted views.
The importance of land to African Americans in the nineteenth cen-tury has been embodied in the phrase “forty acres and a mule.” While thisexpression is still used today to refer to the lost promises of equality andupward mobility in the Civil War and Reconstruction eras, it originatedas an actual plan put forth by General William T. Sherman during theCivil War to provide land for African Americans in a specific region of theUnited States. 8
Explanation behind this quote is offered, showing how African Americans were wronged and falsely promised to. This further explains some of the mistrust referenced later.
The greaterrisk to his life came from the diseases that felled so many full-grown soldiers.
Despite the military experiences these boys went through, medical systems at the time were not adequate enough to fight the greater threat that was disease.
But thousands of boys in theirearly teens, and sometimes even younger, also went to war. From a modernperspective, it seems curious, if not downright immoral, that large numbersof children directly experienced such a vicious conflict.
Indicates that in these different and trying times, military recruitment was so necessary that even the youth were enlisted. This paints a picture of the setting at the time.
In the decade before the Civil War, slaveholders brooded over theFugitive Slave Act’s ineffectiveness and reconsidered their relationship with the nationalgovernment, which had long been their stalwart ally in the protection of slave propertyinterests. Slaveholders believed that the law’s shortcomings suggested that slavery couldnot exist securely in a decentralized federal system and could only be protected within acentral state that left no room for local dissent.
Slaveholders began to feel cautious about their relationship with the government, as the changes in legislation indicated that they would no longer prosper under the new regime.
distinguishedbe-tween principles,whichmust never be compromised,and policy,which toserveprinciplemust be flexibl
Principles are core values, but policies are ways to follow principles - these can be varying and are in the eye of the beholder.
A little overa year afterthe publicationof the pamphlet,Walkerwasamarkedman.In the South,Walkerhad a hefty bounty on his head, wanteddeador alivebyslaveholder
The expression of thought was not a free right, as would be assumed by the constitution. Rather, offending the wrong people could put a mark on your head, with no protection from the government.
FORCEANDFREEDOM
Intense juxtaposition to show the magnitude of the issue at hand
For Cherokee people, using the kinepox (cowpox) vaccination, atreatment derived from an illness caused by animals, probably madefar more cosmological sense than treating a disease with the disease
"Treating a disease with the disease" is leading terminology that helps us understand the community's viewpoint. The absurdity of the statement helps us realize that modern vaccinations and their premise are not intuitively the best response to disease, allowing us to understand the pushback from the community.
The three men made a public health decision without the rest of thecommunity’s consultation and consent. As even Ross acknowledged,
Rationalizes the community's response to the health services offered.
termed “ethnic cleansing
Introduces the main topic here, connecting the narrative discussed so far to a term that a modern audience knows, making the issue clear.
Why Grading Is Inherently Problematic
Presents point clearly, important to note that this phrasing is specifically done to skew the viewer's perspective.
Grades tend to reduce the quality of students’ thinking.
Third main point: grades diminish quality of student's academic mindset overall
Grades create a preference for the easiest possible task.
Second main point: grades diminish quality of learning
Grades tend to diminish students’ interest in whatever they’re learning.
First main point, shows that grades are detrimental to student interest
As I’ve reported elsewhere (Kohn, 1999a, 1999b, 1999c),
Uses primary sources
November 2011
Education progresses so fast that this is a fairly outdated article, important to consider temporal context when analyzing its assertions.