Understanding the dynamic anddemanding process of language acquisition expandsour awareness of the human condition: the need toexpress and to be understood
The article does conclude with the understanding that language learning can help school create environments where all students feel understood, accepted, and understood
. Schools need a shared philosophyand approach in accommodating these stude
Schools also should try to work together to support multilingual students through consistent, inclusive teaching practices
Language diversityis a wonderful opportunity for intellectual andsocial growth.
The authors does view as multilingualism as an educational advantage rather than a problem
. English, in fact, hasadopted numerous words from other languages
English itself has developed by borrowing from many languages, showing that language diversity strengthens communication
When speakers of multiple languages inter-act, the result is an increase in vocabulary and agrowth in worldviews.
Language diversity can benefit everyone by expanding vocabulary, knowledge, and cultural understading
here need not be a choice of one orthe other
The authors does reject the idea that students must choose between English and their home culture or language
. Acculturation asserts that people mayadopt practices, beliefs, and traditions of two ormore cultures. T
Students do not have to abandon their home culture to succeed in schools. They can also embrace multiple cultural identities
they may also feel they mustchoose between assimilation tothe mainstream American cul-ture or segregation into theirnative groups
Multilingual students may also struggle to balance fitting into school while maintaining their cultural identity
When we openly value translating ability,students gain a sense of pride and accomplishment
Recognizing multilingual students language skills can help build confidence and creates a more inclusive classroom
These highly complex skills are often unrecognizedby the translators themselves and the general pub-lic.
Many people to underestimate the knowledge and abilities required to be bilingual or multilingual
When educators understand the art of translation,we sharpen our knowledge of complex cognitiveskills that are often undervalued or ignored
Translation does require advanced thinking skills that schools should recognize as strengths rather than just overlook
." Part of our task, then, is toaffirm students' self-worth and sense of belonging
The teachers should help multilingual students feel more accepted and valued while learning English
ar. 2). Thepolitical push of the English Only movementthreatens to affect public policy and our educa-tional climate. The subtext of this movement's ide-ology, however spun, sends a clear message to ELLstudents: your native tongue is not welcom
The author does argue that english-only policies can make multilingual students feel excluded and devalue their home languages
Because language and identity are intertwined, dis-course on the value of multilingual communities isinherently important for diversity trainin
The author does explain how language is closely connected to identity, so respecting students' home languages also means respecting who they are.
rs. The workshop activities invite partici-pants to become aware of cross-cultural nonverbalcommunication.
Communication involves more than just words. Understanding cultural differences in eye contact and personal space can improve classrooms relationships
use, it is important toencourage an open forum for discussio
Open converstations about language differences can help students understand one another and reduce misunderstandings
r, participants should also identify contextsin which it is appropriate to speak a language otherthan English.
The author does encourage having respectful discussions about when students should use their home language and when English is more appropriate
the timeframe for social language acquisition isapproximately two years. However, the languageskills needed in the classroom are more demanding.Thus, the timeframe to acquire Cognitive Aca-demic Language Proficiency is approximately fiveyears or more
Academic English takes much longer to develop than everyday conversation. School should really start to recognize that language learning is a long-term process
Participants of these activities better compre-hend how language processing takes tim
Learning a new language is a gradual process. Teacher should start to be patient and set realistic expectations for multilingual students
hot seat illustrates how it feels to switch back andforth between languages. W
This activity does help students experience the mental effort that multilingual learners use when moving between languages
We brainstormed suggestions to assist nativeEnglish speakers when communicating with ELLs:speak a little slower, pronounce clearly, repeat, andbe patient. I
Simple communication strategies can make converstation with english learners a lot more successful and respectful
speaking somewhat slower helps, but talkingloudly does not. M
classmates and teachers should use effectuve communication strategies instead of assuming louder speech helps english learners understand
r. I rewarded his ability to produce ideasand did not take off points for wordines
The author does value students' ideas over minor language mistakes. This does show that learning should really focus on communication before perfection
l, we continue to increase collaborationbetween the mainstream teachers and the Englishas a Second Language Department.
Collaboration between teachers does help creates fair expectations and better support for multilingual students
Iplace students in homogeneous language groupswhen the task is especially challenging, knowingthey may need to rely on their native language forsuccess. I prefer heterogeneous language groupsbecause students employ their communicationstrategies to speak English. Fin
Different grouping strategies can support multilingual students while still encouraging English practice. Teachers should also be flexible based on students needs.
, teachers can implement lessonformats that give students time to process theirideas, encouraging maximum participation. For
Giving student extra time to actually think before speaking can help English language learners participate more confidently in class
IGURE 1. Communication Strategies Used by New Language LearnersApproximation selecting a word close to the desired word; example: "assist" class for"attend" classWord Coinage creation of word; examples: "lunch pack" instead of "lunch bag" or "mymom is a good cooker"Circumlocution talking around the word or unsure of words; examples: "we went to therestaurant to get the food but didn't stay" instead of "carry-out" or "take-out" or "What is it when you . .. you know .. .?"Literal Translation translating the word from L1 to L2 (first language to second language);example: difficulty with idioms "beat around the bush" or translatingmolestar from Spanish: "Don't molest me!" instead of "Don't bother me!"Language Switch (or Code Switch) switching from one language to another; example: "you know el libro"Topic Avoidance changing topicMessage Abandonment stop talking, give up, frustratedMime use body language
These communication strategies show that multilingual students actively solve language problems rather than simple by making mistakes. These highlights the complexity of learning a new language
were: they hadmuch to say but were unableto express it. Th
Language learners do often know what they want to communicate, but they lack the grammar or vocabulary to express their ideas clearly
The letter restrictions create an experience that mim-ics speaking another language:
This classroom activity can help students experience the challenges of learning another language, making language acquisition easier to understand
s. These exercisescreate empathy for our multilingual population andare designed for native English speak
The activities are meant to be able to help native English speakers understand what multilingual students experience, and help build respect and empath
ce. Increased sensitivity creates anatmosphere that encourages cross-cultural commu-nication and a cohesive, rather than divisive, multi-cultural community
Schools should start to encourage understanding between students from different language backgrounds to strengthen the school community
Appreciating linguistic diversity fosters toler-ance and respect in our schools
The author does argue that respecting language diversity helps create a more inclusive and welcoming school environment
population. When students and educators under-stand the processes of language acquisition, theyappreciate the language abilities of ELL students.
Understanding how people can learn a second language can help teachers and classmates recognize the strengths of multilingual students instead of focusing only on their mistakes
s, ELL students can feel marginalized.
Language differences can make students feel really excluded from the school community. This connects to respecting students' homes languages and promoting inclusion
r, many of my English lan-guage learning (ELL) students suffer from low self-esteem because they compare their language skillsto those of native English speake
ELL students may lose confidence when they compare themselves to native English speakers. Schools should create environments that value multilingualism instead of making students feel inferior
classroom. If we can recognize tprevalence and largely unquestioned acceptance of Standard Ideology (lins, 1991; Milroy and Milroy, 1991; Wiley an
understanding language bias is one of the first steps toward reducing discrimination
ciplines that the medplays a large role in sustaining the status quo, inclu
the media can reinforce sterotypes about language
d 1997). Also, linguists are largely discouas expert witnesses on language discrimination in our courtrooms (LipGreen, 1
experts on language are often ignored in public discussion
d discrimination that occurs linking language usage to social mobieducational advancement, and personal traits, recently and dramaticexemplified in the debate over Ebo
The ebonics debate does show how widespread language prejudice still is
ly, linguists and other educators must disseminate knowledgedialects m
Schools should start to educate people about dialects to reduce language discrimination
is the concern more pragmatic, central to issues of access and pow
standard english may be connected to the power and opportunity, not just communication
ask how the differentdialects present in the classroom affect the interactional dynamics of theclassroom as well as the dissemination of knowle
More research is needed on how dialects influence learning
h Standard Ideology may prescribe a level to which educatorsaspire, it cannot prevent the use of nonstandard dialects in the classroomby either students or teacher
teachers and students will naturally use different dialects in school
of the teacher. No scholar has gone into the classroom to determine whetherteachers were using and modeling SE.
there's still research on how teachers actually speak in classrooms
T] eachers, policy makers, and educationists need to take account of differences inthe form and function of spoken and written langua
Schools should start to recognize difference in culture, language, and background
erge. "The grammar of spoken English must be bafar more objective analysis of the evidence than has characterizeanalysis of written English
researchers should really study on how people actually speak instead of just assuming spoke english follows writing rules
nd. Repertoire acquisitionand communicative competence are far more important than masteringsome imagined standar
students should be able to learn how to communicate effectively in different situations instead of trying to speak one "perfect form of english
adly, some educators andtheir administrators fail to acknowledge that the teachers probably switchbetween and choose among a variety of different dialects and registers-asthey should. E
Teachers do naturally use different ways of speaking depending on the situation
her words, while teachers successfimplant Standard Ideology in their students, they are not nearly so scessful at teaching specific features of SE
teaching grammar rules alone can often be ineffective
advocate that sociolinguistic issuaccompany any discussion or inst
school should start to teach students about language diversity, not just standard
? Perhaps they are teaching their ideology ofwhat the standard is.
teachers may pass beliefs about standard english rather than facts
The first is afailure on the part of researchers to determine what dialects classroomteachers actually use.
more classroom research is needed before making a language policy
the efficacy of SSE instruction remainsquestionable (
there is little evidence that teaching standard spoken english is very effective
the standard can be spoken in any regional dialect. Discriminationbased on accent alone is well documented, however
accent doesn't determine whether someone can speak standard english
that teachers in Wales have a fuzzy notion ofwhat SE entails.
even some teachers do not always agree on what standard english is
that one's dialect is tied toone's identity. One teacher stat
A person's dialect is apart of who they are
le-the kids simply give up andbecome non-verbal" (Hayes, 1996b). In fact, "dialect correction was fre-quently irrelevant for reading .
Constant correction can reduce students’ confidence and participation.
er, that teachers can change the way children speak is ludicrous. (Smi1993, p. 19
Schools can teach Standard English, but they cannot erase students’ home dialects.
Teachers interviewed for these articles feared, as do some teachers in theUnited States, that imposition of the standard would be demeaning aproduce unwarranted stress and anxiety for students (Hayes, 1996b a1996c; Maxwell, 1994; Warren and
Requiring only Standard English may discourage students.
" (1993). He argues that the policy uncriticaccepts a traditional view of language and language education: that Stdard English, whether in speech or writing, is inherently good English; thacomplexity of meaning can only be achieved through complexity of syn(Knight, 1993
The article challenges the belief that Standard English is automatically better.
ued that BEV was "bad English" and that to pmote it would block the social mobility of its speakers (Wilkins, 1971Williamson, 1
Many people wrongly viewed Black English as incorrect.
one's dialect is tied toone's identity. One teacher stated, "You're changing something which isinherited. I think it is wrong to try to change it" (
A persons dialect is apart of who they are
"Correcting doesn't work with a lot of people-the kids simply give up andbecome non-verbal" (Hayes, 1996b). In fact, "dialect correction was fre-quently irrelevant for reading ...
constant correct sometimes can reduce students confidence and participation
hat teachers can change the way children speak is ludicrous. (Smi1993, p. 19)
schools can teach standard english, but they cant just erase students home dialects
Teachers interviewed for these articles feared, as do some teachers in theUnited States, that imposition of the standard would be demeaning aproduce unwarranted stress and anxiety f
Requiring only standard english could discourage students
" (1993). He argues that the policy uncriticaccepts a traditional view of language and language education: that Stdard English, whether in speech or writing, is inherently good English; thacomplexity of meaning can only be achieved through complexity of syn(Knight, 1993).
The article does challenge the belief that standard english is automatically better
h most authors argued that BEV was "bad English" and that to pmote it would block the social mobility of its speakers (Wilkins, 1971Williamson, 1
Many people wrongly viewed black english as incorrect
bor, Michigan court mandated that the school systemhad to address the problems of their Black English Vernacular-speakingstudents (Labov, 1982; Smitherman, 1981). Previously,
Schools do have a responsibility to support students who speak different dialects
there has been little public reaction to the failure of our public schools to educateminority children. N
The authors do argue that people criticized Ebonics more than they addresses educational inequality
olerated. The Ebonics debate is themost recent in a long line of such debates.Referring to the statistics cited above, Getridge writ
The debate shows how language instructions remain controversial
'] knowledge of language variation must include the broader base ofcultural background and experience that vernacular dialect speakers bringto the literacy situation" (Wolfram, 1994, p. 8
Teachers should start to understand students culture and language.
the teacher will usually speak a less standard form inthe classroom. "However, she should also be able to speak [the standard]and do so from time to time as appropriate-so that the students have aproper model to follow in their repertoire acq
Teachers can model standard english without having to use it all the time
that teachers may well use a variety of registersand shift dialects in the classroom to good
Teachers do naturally change the way they speak depending on the situation
tes that this assumption hasnever been systematically tested by going into classrooms, taping, and thenanalyzing the language used by te
There is very little evidence showing teachers actually speak only standard english
IV. Standard English Is (or Ought to Be) the Languageof the ClassroomSomething approaching [Standard English], or not departing too widely from it, isoften assumed to be necessary for the serious business of formal education, both inthe social sense of being more fitting, and in the cognitive sense of being morestructurally superior. (Edwards and Westgate, 1
The authors start to question whether schools should require only Standard English
form. If the mastery of SSE were deemphasized ischools and repertoire building and communicative competence (whichcould include a prototypic analysis of SSE) bec
Schools should be able to emphasize effective communication instead of perfect standard english
r decades that nonsdard dialect usage does not indicate stupidity or laziness, the popopinion is that it d
dialects do not reflect intelligence or work ethic
ile discrimination based on racism and sexism is illegal, discrimition based on speech patterns "is the site on which racism and ethnoctrism are institutional
Language discrimination can also become instituionalized
bility. Teachers at all levels have the power to punish ansanction students based on their "inappropriate" or "deviant" languause. Teac
Teachers language expectations can also affect students educational opportunities
hows that family and ethnic background were far more effepredictors of social position, throughout the century, than was literacy. (Co1991, p. 2
Social background can often have a greater impact on succes than literacy alone
Some researchers assert that linguistic bias is a cover for racism, which hasmore to do with employment or job discrimination than does language
Language discrimination can reinforce racial discrimination
language testing andassessment that regularly labels features of a child's home dialect as patho-logical, meriting remediation; serves to track students into particular cur-ricula, classes, or schools (
school tend to unfairly treat home dialects as problems
s allow us to blame the individual for failing tolearn SE rather than the school system for failing to teach it (Collins, 19
the responsibility is often placed on students instead of educational systems
[L]inguistic factors influence our judgments of personality, intelligence, socialstatus, educational standards, job aptitude.... As a result, it is easy to hurt, and tobe hurt, when language use is unfeelingly attacked
Language can affect how others perceive intelligence ad ability
, social mobility is blocked whenspeech is deemed inappropriate fo
The way people speak can definitely affect job opportunities and advancement
ve Standard Ideology helps explain this privileging of SSE. Mil-roy and Milroy (19
standard english does have social power because of widely accepted beliefs
SE, speakers of stigmatized dialects continue to maintain their com-munity code
People do often keep their home dialect even when standard english is valued
ts are equal, most take apragmatic stance that accepts rather than questions the privileging of SSE(Baugh, 1983; DeBose, 1992; Heller, 1994; Hought
society does accept standard english because it provides advantages
of California. They cannot get a jobat NBC or CBS or ABC unless they can master this language, and I'll tell you theycan master it if they are challenged to do so." (Jesse Jackson quoted in
Many people do believe that standard english creates more career opportunities
III. Standard English Is the Language of the Workplaceand Essential to Social MobilityThe centralizing institutions of modern nations ... bring about a linguistic ucation in that one way of speaking becomes the explicit norm for conductbusiness and displaying com
The start of assumption 3 were the authors talk about how standard English is often viewed as necessary for success in work and school
eve Standard Ideology helps explain this privileging of SSE. Mil-roy and Milro
Standard English does have social power because of widely accepted beliefs
E, speakers of stigmatized dialects continue to maintain their com-munity code
People do often keep their home dialects even when the standard English is valued
ts are equal, most take apragmatic stance that accepts rather than questions the privileging of SSE(Baugh, 1983; DeBose, 1992; Heller, 1994; Hought
Society does accept standard English because it provides more advantages
of California. They cannot get a jobat NBC or CBS or ABC unless they can master this language, and I'll tell you theycan master it if they are challenged
Many people do believe that standard english creates more career opportunities
SWE, students would leave classrooms with a morecomplex and realistic notion of the complexities of language than theycurrently d
Learning about language diversity definitely helps students better understand communication
also believe that Standard Ide-ology, and other sociolinguistic issues, ought to be addressed in our schoolsystem
schools should start to teach students about language bias, not just grammar
SE. The lack of specification, however, remains problematic forspeakers of dialects other than the standard and for the goal of teaching aspoken standard in our school
it is kinda difficult to teach one "correct" spoken English, which is not clearly defined
Prototype Theory and Standard Ideology offer reasonable ways to con-ceptualize SSE. Both offer an explanation for how and why people can anddo distinguish between standard and nonstan
these theories do explain how people can recognize standard English without creating one strict spoken standard
TABLE 1Features of Standard EnglishSyntactic Features ExamplesSingular negation I don't want any. vs. I don't want none.Subject/Verb agreement None is true. vs. None are true.Maintenance of irregular verb forms sing, sang, sung; drink drank, drunk;see, saw, seen; do, did, done; etc.Verbal inflections He wants. vs. He want.Nonduplicated subjects My sister works at a bank. vs. My sister,she works at a bank.Use of Pronoun Cases She and I left. vs. Me and her left.Use of Subjunctive If I were president. vs. If I was president.
this is an example of grammar features commonly associated with standard english
guage usage, we would nto conduct empirical research that tested the acceptability of particforms. In the United S
more research is needed before even deciding what counts as standard spoken English
ise, there may be defining and characteristic features for eadialec
dialects can share core features but will still allow variation
at each conceptual category has defining features, which are oblig-atory, and characteristic features, which ar
some language features are very essential, while others are more flexible
ents. They proposed Prototype Theo
the author does use prototype theory to explain how people can recognize standard english
. Communicative competence reflects the knowl-edge of subtle variations of dialectal
Effective communication means using language appropiately for different situations
Even those who use stigmatized forms believe that other forms are "better"(Dose and Gross,
social attitudes also influence how people judge language
. Standard Ideology "stresses the impor-tance and superiority of the standard, 'literate' or 'unaccented' variety ofEnglish" (Wiley and Lukes, 1991, p. 514).
Society values standard English because of the shared beliefs, not because it is inherently superior.
ainst "the erroneous belief in a single standard ofwhat some people believe is language correctness, known alternatively as'standard English,' 'good grammar,' 'correct grammar,' and 'proper me-chanics,' ..
There is not only one correct way to speak english
nd: "What is needed is reliable, current data onvariation and change in the language of educated speakers" (C
Researches should also study how educated people can actually speak today
The fact that languages and their dialects change over time furthercomplicates the exact delineation of SSE (Aitchison, 1991; Alexander,
Language naturally changes across generations
f "different than/different fr
shows that multiple forms can be correct
is that specific prescriptivechoices are largely based on personal preferences without linguistic orsocial justification (Boyd
Many grammar rules do come from opinions rather than linguistic facts
e incorrect. Variation, however,reflects appropriate style and register shifts and prod
Language naturally changes depending what the situation is.
negan, 1980).A full inventory of features has not been ascertained for any dialect
There is really no complete definition of standard spoken English
great regularityscholars rarely specify whether they are referring to the written or spokenform. Th
Many discussions of standard english do not clearly distinguish speech from writing
Spoken and Written Codes Are Equally Amenable to StandardizationWhat Standard English actually is thought to be depends on acceptance ... of acommon core of linguistic conventions ... [whose chief characteristic] is intolerance of optional variability in language. (Milroy & Milroy
the authors start to question whether spoken english can really be standardized
language. Some of the most vociferous rejections of Oakland's planned use of Ebonics came fro
The Ebonics debate shows how controversial language differences can be in education.
iting. "[T] he literary dialect serves as the indexical referencepoint for the evaluation of speech" (Collins, 1
People do often judge speech using writing standards
educators need to understand that their own spoken languagedoes not conform to the rules of the standard written code-inside or
even teachers do not speak exactly like how they write.
. Milroy andMilroy (1991) argue that while a standardized written form is justifiableand achievable, a standardized spoken form is an illusion.Finally
standardizing writing is also possible, but standardizing everyday speech is unrealistic
nce that written andspoken English are separate registers and that it is necessary to stop furtherconflation of them. Thus, for the remainder of this article, we will discussStandard Spoken English (SSE) and SWE separat
Written and spoken english should be treated separately
, that no educated person should confound speech and writing,trying to impose the rules of one on the other form. "It is, of cours
schould should start to recognize that writing and speaking are different language skills
. Casual speech, however, even in the "standard" dialect, varies fromStandard Written English (SWE) in the ways outlined above. Cas
Everyday conversations do not match standard written English
es that formal writing is also"more structurally complex and elaborate" with "longer sentences, . . . lesspersonally involved ... and more detached and abstract ... [and] charac-terized by a higher concent
writing can use more complex sentence structure than everday speech
& Milroy, 1993), coordition is preferred in speech. Applying these rules to
people naturally speak differently that what they write
Complete sentences are often redundant and unnecessary in speech; el150CRITICAL THOUGHTS ON TEACHING STANDARD ENGLISHlipsis is common. Completeness marks
converstaions can often use incomplete sentences, while writing usually can require complete ones
differ, but also the grammof writing differs from that of speech (Dyk
written english and spoken english have different grammer rules
o codes is that oral languais acquired naturally, while written language is taught and learned in school(Andrews, 1993; Dykema,
Children can naturally learn to speak, but it must be taught how to write.
goal of writing is to create a text that is clear, in no further need ofelaboration or explanation
writing need to stand on its own without extra explanation
speech is context-tied and social, so meaning can be negotiated inreal time.
people can ask questions and clarify the meaning during different conversations
Writing is de-contextualized.
writing must communicate clearly without the speaker having to be present
The fact that speech is situated in a context means that tone, pitch,loudness, gestures, facial expressions (Ochs, 1979), and prosody andintonation (Gumperz, 1982) accompany and complement speech.
facial expressions, tone, and gestures can help people understand spoken language
Speech Writingauditory medium visual mediumsituated in a context decontextualizedsocial activity solitary activitynormally unplanned planned/often revisedcontext-tied context-freeephemeral permanentacquired naturally taught and learned
This list can summarize the key difference between written and spoken English
know comparatively littleabout spoken language; t
Spoken language has been studied a lot less than written language
"There is no linguistic or situational characterization of speech and wthat is true of all spoken and written genres" (B
Writing and speech can change depending on the situation
th, 1980). "Where once [the standardviewed as simply a literary dialect, a written code, it became a prescrfor all linguistic practice
Standard English can expand it from writing to speech, even without the evidence that it should.
Most descriptions of SE are based upon the written form but havebeen assumed descriptive of spoken English
many people can incorrectly assume spoken english and written english follow the same rules
I. Spoken and Written Standard English
assumption 1
Four underlying assumptions about Standard English (SE) emerge inth
the rest of the article kinda explains these four assumptions
96, the Oakland School Board claimed that Ebonics2was a separate languag
example of schools that recognize students home language to improve learning
, "[t]he distinction between 'languages' and 'dialects' is usuallymade more on social and political grounds th
Language labels are influenced by politics and society.
at people, even those who do not speak the standard, judge thestandard superior to other diale
society can often value Standard English more than other dialects.
Linguists argue that all dialects are equ
no dialect is linguistically better than another
5). People who can successfully and appro-priately shift from one style to another possess Communicative Co
good communication can mean knowing when to switch language styles
Each dialect displays lexical, phonological, and grammatical features
every dialect has it's own language features
This article exposes four assumptions that underlie most discussions of StandaEnglis
The authors do challenge common beliefs about standard english
ct. We actively reject the popular misconception that allows "tdominant groups [to] succeed in attributing the status of language to thown variety w
Society often treats one dialect as more "correct" because of the power, not because it is better
Language is an abstract, mental system largely shared by its native speakerThe speakers themselves produce various dialects o
Language can naturally include many dialects.
it. Fourth, Standard English is the languagthe classr
the authors do quetion wheter school should only use standard English
hird, Standard English is the language of the workplaceessential for social mobility. While we do not refute this assumption, we do explothe discrimination that stem
Standard english creates discrimination in society and jobs.
irst, spoken English equates to written English. Substantial evidendemonstrates that this equation is both mislead
Written and spoken english are different