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This is a really helpful section overall. I think it leads well to an examination of social learning theories, which we focus a lot on in our criminology classes!
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Investigating
I am wondering why involvement and belief do not get their own paragraphs in this section! I think this would be helpful!
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Hirschi identified four social bonds: attachment, commitment, involvement and belief.
This is what I meant for the prior section! This is very helpful!
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Informal controls
is this the fourth form of control? Or is it the positive sanctions?
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four
Only three controls are listed. Could they be listed first in this paragraph, and then defined in the subsequent paragraphs?
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late for
later?
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criminogenic environment
I think this term needs a precise definition like was done in early chapters!
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Sutherland positioned himself against scholars and policymakers who emphasized eugenics as a way to improve American society
This is a huge point that needs to be discussed in this book somewhere, as criminology has such a deep and problematic history associated with eugenics. Thinking specifically of Cesare Lombroso and the Criminal Man as an example of this.
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Pretrial Fairness Act
I know there was a great deal of activism ahead of this Act. Would it be possible to talk a bit more about this example and link it to the inequalities literature in sociology/criminology? This would be a great place to talk about class and racial inequalities in the justice system and in incarceration! How do criminologists think about these inequalities? What does the Pretrial Fairness Act end up doing for residents and how does it address inequalities? If not included in this textbook, I think this is another place where external resources would be needed, paired with the book!
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Illinois
In my experience, this chapter would fit more closely with our Criminal Justice System course (an upper-level undergrad course) rather than our criminology course. However, I think this is still useful as an introduction for students to think about the local criminal justice system. Whether offered in this book or using external resources, i would also want students to consider how criminologists think about/study the court system more broadly. That connection is not as present in the section.
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violation
This is a really helpful example to explain how appeals reach new jurisdictions, and highlights how long this process can take!
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finish
It is really important to show that police work is not what we see on tv and to show students the ways in which this kind of work is mundane. I feel that this section is incomplete without a discussion of contemporary police violence, which has been a major focal point for social movements in the US over the last decade. I would want students to seriously consider the role policing plays in Illinois. You gesture to some of the history of slave patrols, but the contemporary moment does get that type of balance. If assigning this chapter, I would feel the need to bring in a lot of supplemental material to give students a more nuanced understanding of contemporary policing and its connections to criminology.
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Hawaii is the last state to develop statewide police standards, setting up an agency in 2018 and only adequately funding it in 2022
Why did this take longer? Is there a connection to the colonization of Hawaii or resistance from natives or settlers?
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ended the cycle of firing and hiring unqualified political loyalists every time a new alderman came into office
and criminalized such practices? Created laws around these practices?
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a career in policing has served as a way for ethnic groups to assimilate into white American society
Say more on this! Can you draw on these citations to better show students how this is the case?
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City jobs were rewards politicians used to thank loyalists and to maintain support among constituents.
can you make a connection to crime here? Corruption and white collar crime, maybe?
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public
Is there a connection to be made between these historical entities and current iterations of neighborhood watch? This is also a racialized entity in many communities.
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on their ability to participate in policing efforts
Would they have wanted to participate in policing at that time? What about restrictions on their freedoms from these early policing entities? You gesture to slave patrols, but my assumption would be that there are more examples to draw on! How might we think about this type of policing and the study of criminology (who is getting criminalized, for example)?
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federally recognized tribal nations
While there are no federally recognized tribes in Illinois, could a bit more be said on this? The system for tribal nations is quite different from states, and involves a great deal more federal jurisdiction, with some state jurisdiction. It can also change based on tribal affiliation and lack thereof, which also shows how legal jurisdiction is able to change!
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Over two centuries the American jurisprudence has developed the idea of dual sovereignty or “the view that the states and the federal government each enjoy robust authority and sovereignty in their respective spheres” (Murray 2026:143). This idea helps us understand how Congress had the constitutional authority to induce states to raise their drinking age to 21, which succeeded by tying the drinking age to full federal financial support for highway projects.
Can a bit more context be added for this? How is dual sovereignty related to the drinking age example? I feel that a student might see this as federal supremacy over the state laws, which I don't think is the point.
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society
I find this section to be especially useful for getting students to think about the various governing bodies that affect their lives. While the focus on state, municipal, and other local governing bodies is clear, can there be a connection made to other governing bodies (for example, federal) that would also have jurisdiction? I think it would also be useful to clarify, whether in the text or during class discussion, that laws can change based on where one is (or reiterate here since it comes up in the prior chapter).
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- Jul 2026
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In a democracy, a wide range of professionals and ordinary people explore and talk about crimes.
I feel like this was still pretty centered on academic research, which is fine, but I had hoped to see more from knowledge producers elsewhere.
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There is nothing inherently wrong with having a passion for a topic; most research comes from curiosity, which reflects a subjective evaluation that something in the world is interesting and worthy of inquiry. A problem about the reliability of research insights and explanations emerges when a scholar, journalist, or other professional fails to state their closeness to the topic and the ways this closeness might have influenced the research process.
I really like this framing of subjectivity. Is there a way to include a bit of info on how Objectivity has been used in the social sciences, like Criminology?
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The researchers found that arrest was the most effective way to prevent reoffending. As a result of this experiment, mandatory arrest is now the standard response to domestic violence incidents across the United States.
Is there critique of this or is this a fairly settled debate?
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gold standard
As a qual researcher - not a fan of this wording, as it can position quant as superior, which is often done, upholding positivist methods as the best, despite the harm they have done!
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Explanation
A lot of this section does not feel like a criminology course, and more like intro to research methods. There are parts that are useful, but I don't feel like I would use this part as much as I would the other method sections. I also feel like this is a lot more focused on the methods themselves, and not on how they have been used. I would find it really useful to talk about how quantitative data has been used to determine what neighborhoods get greater police presence, or how qualitative data is used to get at root causes of crime problems in society. This feels more useful than solely focusing on the types of methods available.
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shooting fatally victims
fatally shooting victims?
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often shared through stories
What is the supposed effect of the confluence of idiographic and nomothetic insights for police? Even if this can't be explained in the text, could this be part of a provided set of discussion questions? Or questions for students to think about as they read?
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my discussion about the decline in Illinois law enforcement agencies
Is this from a separate article or an earlier chapter?
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anticipated
very clear explanations of these new ideas so far! I appreciate that they aren't crime focused to really make sure they are understood!
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The discussion situates the way scholars research and discuss crime and criminal behavior next to the way journalists, police, and lawyers do. My intention is to deepen your appreciation for the wide range of social actors who produce knowledge and stories about crime. Scholars are one group and often the least influential in shaping the public’s understanding about crime. Comparing and contrasting how scholars, criminal justice professionals—police; court officials such as judges, prosecutors, and defense attorneys; correctional officials—journalists, activists, and policymakers develop explanations for criminal behavior and incidents strengthens our engagement with media, politics, and policy related to addressing crime
I really like this approach - get out of the academe and into other knowledge production spaces!
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a radical criminologist would note that once gun violence touched wealthy white residents, there was enough political will to pass a law. These scholars would not see this law as adequate and instead would advocate for increased social investments in towns and neighborhoods as a more enduring way to reduce gun violence.
YES!
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Colonial governments in the Upper Mississippi River region attempted to prevent European traders and colonists from trading guns to American Indian polities in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Land dispossession and forced removal of American Indian groups from Illinois happened at gunpoint between 1818 and 1840, roughly within the first two decades after the territory became a state.
Such an important point that is underrepresented in our education! Can you provide further sources to help educators who might want to bring this into the classroom in a deeper way?
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And no social system that systematically abrogates these rights is justifiable”
This part of the quote does not quite feel explained in the paragraph. The context is helpful and likely needed for undergrads, but what remains unclear is the precise system that the Schwendinger's were opposing/hoping to move toward. Can this be explained at the end of the paragraph in 1-2 sentences?
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W.E.B. DuBois identified racial disparities in law enforcement and policing practices that imposed and maintained African Americans in a socially and economically subordinate status decades after slavery (Gabbidon 2001, DuBois 1996/1899). DuBois identified a “double system of justice” that ensnared African Americans at higher rates compared to white Americans (Gabbidon 2001). He saw that the law and criminal justice system created harms that maintained social inequality based on race and class. The journalist and activist Ida B. Wells debunked the argument that lynchings were public outrage at sexual offenses that African American men had committed against white women. In reality, the majority of lynching victims were African Americans who challenged the existing racial hierarchy and competed in business against white resident
I think it would be really good to have large sections on Du Bois and Wells. This could look like author bios, but also I think this is a really important lesson to show how framing someone as criminal - or framing a race as criminal - can have such big impacts.
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deviant behavior
needs a definition
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Different religious communities have often failed to hold their clergy accused of child sex abuse accountable within these organizations and discouraged survivors from using the criminal justice system (Bundy 2015, Illinois Attorney General 2023). Violent retaliation and vigilantism, as two extreme examples of informal mechanisms, are deeply destabilizing to social life.
also important points!
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Rather than nullum crimen, sine lege as the last word, a focus on conduct norms invites investigating how communities address harmful or disturbing behavior outside the formal criminal justice system. With regard to domestic and intimate partner violence, we would turn our attention to informal methods family members and peers use to de-escalate, prevent, and resolve abuse incidents.
Really interesting and important point - is there a connection to be made to abolitionist groups who want less/no police presence?
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Persons who have not been convicted of a crime largely fall outside the purview of criminological scholarship. Also, the dark figure of crime looms just as large if not larger when we accept that the government enforces laws differentially.
yes!
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persons
can the image be enlarged?
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“an unlawful act is not defined as criminal by the fact that it is punished, but by the fact that it is punishable” (35).
key difference from Tappan
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inevitable limitation.
Strong discussion of this and extremely necessary!
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Paul Tappan died from a heart attack in 1964.
Relevance?
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attitudes towards polygamy
around the laws too?
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suggests a story element highlighting that a person has no defense or excuse for their lawbreaking behavior.
This feels like it needs more explanation!
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These sheriffs saw PICA as an infringement of the Second Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.
Such a strong case to frame the chapter around, as it is likely to force questions about not only the nature of crime, but also how crime is selectively dealt with, changes in its contents, and law enforcement does not always uphold crime prevention! Hoping to see this and more throughout the chapter!
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These two aspects of crime— behavior and storytelling— have broad implications that I will identify in this chapter and in subsequent ones.
Feeling like I understand this definition, but also feeling uneasy about it. There must be a relation of power involved in the storytelling, right?
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The word “crime” and related terms like “criminal”, “criminality”, and “criminalization” entered the English language as a result of the Norman conquest of England, which historians date as beginning with the Battle of Hastings in 1066. The French-speaking elite from the Normandy region, of what is today France, displaced Anglo-Saxon rulers of England. The lasting impact of the conquest on language involved the adoption of words and grammatical structures from Norman-French and Latin in written documents and, over time, in daily speech. The marginalization of Germanic and Nordic influences in Old English lasted for centuries. English-speakers around the world remain the inheritors.
How necessary is this part of the explanation? There was certainly crime before the word was in use - is there a way to talk about how 'crime' was talked about before? Is that what the reference to the Catholic Church is?
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