Still later, culture came to be associated with “the qualities of an educated person.” On the other hand, an uneducated person might be referred to as “uncultured.” Indeed, throughout the 19th century, culture was thought of as “refinement through education.”

The neighborhoods that were considered too dangerous to offer home loans to - they were colored red. This is where the term redlining comes from. Neighborhoods were redlined if they had, quote, "detrimental influences" or, quote, "foreign-born people." The biggest factor in why neighborhoods were redlined was the high presence of, quote, "Negroes."

So the North reacts by simply penning black people in and containing them through housing. They don't have to pass laws if they simply act in ways that don't allow black people to live but in very small designated areas.

And so the South implements this very codified system of social control. It determines every place that black people can move, dine, attend school, even, like, where they can park.

It was revealed that the city had actually been using a secret spy plane for high-crime areas that it hadn't even told residents about.

And that is when we finally get the courage to pass the Fair Housing Act. But the act that's passed is actually removed of almost all of its enforcement provisions. But it does, for the first time say, that - in 1968, it is illegal to discriminate against black people in terms of housing.

And while these black neighborhoods in the cities were falling apart, white people with money from the GI Bill and these government-backed mortgages were moving to the suburbs.

Seemingly radical notions like defunding police departments or outright abolition of the police have gained momentum in no small part because police departments have proven, again and again, resistant to even the most modest reforms.

It's also virtually impossible to get redress by suing a police officer in a civil case, thanks to a judicial doctrine called qualified immunity.

Because of qualified immunity, public officials are held to a much lower standard. Basically, they can only be held accountable insofar as they violate rights that are "clearly established" and according to existing case law.

Now, it doesn't matter if the officer acted in good faith. Even if officers or officials act maliciously, unless the victim can show that his or her right was "clearly established," they basically can't get any relief. All of a sudden, you see a situation where nobody's liable.

There is just example after example of incompetence combined with recklessness and maliciousness where the courts say that this is actually okay. I mean, it's not okay morally, but it's okay legally.

Qualified immunity is essentially a defense available to public officials when they're accused of wrongdoing.