It has been devised that the Pope, bishops, priests, and monks are called the spiritual estate; princes, lords, artificers, and peasants, are the temporal estate. This is an artful lie and hypocritical device, but let no one be made afraid by it, and that for this reason:

Besides that, we are all priests, as I have said, and have all one faith, one Gospel, one Sacrament ; how then should we not have the power of discerning and judging what is right or wrong in matters of faith

As for the unction by a pope or a bishop, tonsure, ordination, consecration, and clothes differing from those of laymen-all this may make a hypocrite or an anointed puppet, but never a Christian or a spiritual man.

for which the discovery of America paved the way. This market has given an immense development to commerce, to navigation, to communication by land. This development has, in its time, reacted on the extension of industry; and in proportion as industry, commerce, navigation, railways extended, in the same proportion the bourgeoisie developed, increased its capital, and pushed into the background every class handed down from the Middle Ages.

etween People and Their Work. The third criterion which contributes to a person's social class is the relationship between that per- son and his or her own productive activity - the type of activity that con- stitute

ivate ownership of capital. Capital is usually thought of as being derived from physical property. In this sense capital is proper- ty which is used to produce profit, interest, or rent in sufficient quantity so that the result can be used to produce more profit, interest, or rent- that is, m

One's occupation and income level contribute significantly to one's social class, but they do not define it. Rather, social class is a series of re- lationshi

The methods used to gather data were classroom observation; inter- views of students, teachers, principals, and district administrative staff; and assessment of curriculum and other materials in each classroom and schoo

rk tasks and interaction in each school are presented; then the con- cepts used to define social class are applied to the examples in order to assess the theoretical meaning of classroom events. It will be suggested that there is a ' 'hidden curriculum" in school work that has profound im- plication for the th

ols in complex industrial societies like our own make available different types of educational experience and cur- riculum knowledge to students in different social

in the area in the late 1960s and early 1970s were careful to distinguish one fro

hakespearean plays, considered pop culture when they were written, are now part of our society’s high culture. Five hundred years from now, will our descendants associate Breaking Bad with the cultural elite?

ind if she’d felt the same pressure in school. In 2008, researchers from Johns Hopkins University conducted a series of studies on the effects of bilingual education (Slavin et al. 2008). They found that students taught in both their native tongue and English make better progress than those taught only in English.

f ethnocentrism,

What happens when we encounter different cultures? As we interact with cultures other than our own, we become more aware of the differences and commonalities between others’ worlds and our own.

To someone raised in New York City, the marriage customs of a family from Nigeria may seem strange or even wrong. Conversely, someone from a traditional Kolkata family might be perplexed with the idea of romantic love as the foundation for marriage and lifelong commitment. In other words, the way in which people view marriage depends largely on what they have been taught.

e may simply say, "Hello!" and ask, "How was your weekend?" or some other trivial question meant to be a friendly greeting. Rarely do we physically embrace or even touch the individual. In fact, doing so may be viewed with scorn or distaste, since as people in the United States we have fairly rigid rules about personal space. However, we all adhere to various rules and standards that are created and maintained in culture.

They must report findings accurately, even if they contradict personal convictions.

Investigators are ethically obligated to report results, even when they contradict personal views, predicted outcomes, or widely accepted beliefs.

without bias or judgment, during the course of a study and in publishing results (1949). Sociologists are obligated to disclose research findings without omitting or distorting significant data.

Weber understood that personal values could distort the framework for disclosing study results. While he accepted that some aspects of research design might be influenced by personal values, he declared it was entirely inappropriate to allow personal values to shape the interpretation of the responses.

Researchers must obtain participants’ informed consent and inform subjects of the responsibilities and risks of research before they agree to partake.

Is value neutrality possible? Many sociologists believe it is impossible to set aside personal values and retain complete objectivity. T

he low proportion of the Greek Catholics cannot be surely attributed to religion; for as their civilization is very different from that of the other Euro-pean nations, this difference of culture may be the cause of their lesser apti-tude.

If one casts a glance at the map of European suicide, it is at once clear that in purely Catholic countries like Spain, Portugal, Italy, suicide is very little de-veloped, while it is at its maximum in Protestant countries, in Prussia, Saxony, Denmark.

At each moment of its history, therefore, each society has a definite apti-tude for suicide. The relative intensity of this aptitude is measured by taking the proportion between the total number of voluntary deaths and the popu-lation of every age and sex

Chaves argues that organized religion occupiesless of Americans'time and exerts less influence on society as a whole thanit did in the past

sociologists who study the institution of religion are documenting thechanges occurring within this social institution. one current deba*te iswhether religiosity is growing in the United states or if it is declining due toincreasing secularization.

Not leisure and enjoyment, but only activity serves to increase theglory of God according to the definite manifestations of His will.Waste of time is thus the first and in principle the deadliest of sins. Thespan of human'life is infinitely short and precic'rus to make sure of one's ownelection.

without the ProtestantReformation and a change in societal valuesJoward rationality, capitalismwould not have evol'u'ed as we know it today

y' Max Weber (1864-1920), forexample, often placed the institution of religion at the center of his socialanalyses. Weber was particularly concerned with how changes in the insti-tution of religion influenced changes in other srlcial institutions, especiallythe economy.

In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost everywhere a complicated arrangement of society into various orders, a manifold gradation of social rank. In ancient Rome we have patricians, knights, plebeians, slaves; in the Middle Ages, feudal lords, vassals, guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in almost all of these classes, again, subordinate gradations.