Analysis of dialectic differences within the sample revealed that 80.8% of participants spoke MAE. Of the remaining participants, 8.0% spoke AAE, another 7.7% of participants spoke Southern American English, and the final 3.5% spoke other dialects
The DELV included children who spoke several English dialects, helping ensure the test works fairly across different ways of speaking.
The following classifications were examined within the demographic analysis of the sample: age, sex, race/ethnicity, parental education level, and region.
The study included children from different backgrounds to reduce bias and make the assessment more inclusive.
The authors based their standardization sample on this data in an attempt to closely mirror the percentiles across demographic categories
Researchers made the sample similar to the U.S. population so the test results would be fair and representative
A sample of over 900 participants was used in the standardization of the DELV-NR edition.
The DELV was standardized using a large group of children to help ensure the test is reliable and accurate.
items needed to be non-contrastive, resulting in minimal differences regardless of the dialect of English spoken by the test-takers.
The DELV uses language features that are common across English dialects so children are not judged unfairly because of the way they speak.
items needed to both differentiate between typically developing children and impaired children
The questions were carefully chosen to identify true language disorders while recognizing normal language development.
A group of 1370 test-takers from across the USA, including 450 speakers of MAE, 800 speakers of AAE, and 120 individuals who spoke other dialects, participated in refining the assessment material
Researchers tested the DELV with a large and diverse group of children to make sure the assessment was fair and accurate.
In 2005, DELV-NR became the first standardized assessment tool aimed specifically at assessing children who speak AAE and other variations of English
The DELV-NR was an important step toward fair language testing because it recognizes dialect differences instead of treating them as language disorders
The problem of using MAE as the norm against which to compare the speech and language of AAE speakers
Using Mainstream American English as the standard unfairly judged children who spoke African American English, leading to inaccurate evaluations
Historically, research has acknowledged that African American and other minority children are disproportionately represented in special education
Minority children have often been placed in special education at higher rates, sometimes because of bias in language assessments rather than actual disabilities.
Overall language performance is reported as a composite standard score and percentile rank.
The DELV combines scores from several language areas to give an overall picture of a child's language abilities and compare them with other children of the same age.
It is designed for children who speak English as their first spoken and primary language
The assessment is intended for native English-speaking children, including those who speak different English dialects
The DELV-NR is normed for children aged 4 years, 0 months through 9 years, 11 months
The test is specifically designed and standardized for children between the ages of 4 and 9 years old.
These items measure the child’s overall ability to use social communication and appropriately respond to questions and situations.
The DELV measures how well children communicate, understand language, and use it in everyday social interactions
The subtest items were selected on the basis of representing syntactic features of English that are universal among all of its dialects.
The test focuses on language skills that are common across all English dialects to reduce cultural and linguistic bias
The DELV-NR assesses the language domains of syntax, pragmatics, semantics, and phonology in children regardless of their dialect of English
The DELV evaluates multiple areas of language while treating all English dialects fairly.
Deficits in the use of non-contrastive features of English would be indicative of a true disorder rather than a dialectical difference.
The DELV helps distinguish between a language disorder and a normal dialect difference so children are not misdiagnosed.
in African American English (AAE), it is not obligatory to include “is.”
This example shows that dialect differences are not mistakes—they are valid grammatical patterns within that dialect
The DELV-NR strives toward being a culturally unbiased assessment
The DELV-NR is designed to avoid cultural and language bias by recognizing that different English dialects follow different language rules.
he DELV-NR is a diagnostic test that provides a standardized approach to distinguishing between speech and language differences versus delays and/or disorders in children.
The DELV-NR helps professionals tell the difference between a normal language difference caused by dialect and an actual speech or language disorder.
The DELV consists of three separate tests:
The DELV includes multiple tests to screen, assess, and diagnose children's language abilities
The Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Variation (DELV) is a group of tests designed to assess speech and language disorders in children who speak a dialect of English other than Mainstream American English (MAE
The DELV helps evaluate children who speak different English dialects without unfairly judging their dialect as incorrect.
the prevailing conditions serve the interests of the French-speaking ruling class and help to ensure their continued dominance
The use of French in positions of power allowed the elite to maintain control and limited the ability of Creole-speaking Haitians to fully participate in government and society
French was the official language of the colonial state institutions being inherited by the emerging black and mulatto elite. … Creole had no standard writing system at the time
French remained the language of government, education, and power because it was already established during colonial rule, while Creole was not recognized in formal settings because it lacked a written system.
social identity
A long time to have adopt the language 1918-1983
In 1983, the Haitian constitution declared both French and Creole to be “national” languages,
The recognition of Creole as a national language showed a shift toward valuing the language spoken by the majority of Haitians, although social and political factors influenced this change.
French was the official language and that its use was obligatory in the public service.
French was given official power in Haiti’s government, which reinforced the importance of French over Creole in formal settings.
education in French served to reinforce the ideology that those who could access such an education were superior to the mass of the population who were speakers of African languages or Creole.
The preference for French helped maintain beliefs that French speakers were more educated or important, while Creole speakers faced discrimination
Education in French became important in the battle for power between those who could afford an education and those who had little access
Access to French education created social inequality because people who learned French gained more opportunities and influence.
he elite bilingual minority insisted on the use of only French in public formal domains.
French became associated with power and status because the educated elite used it in government, education, and other important settings while most Haitians spoke Creole.
One-third of the slave population was born in the colony, and they were native speakers of Haitian Creole and second-language speakers of African languages
As new generations were born in Haiti, Creole became their first language, showing how the language grew from a way to communicate into a complete language.
The constant communication among the different slave groups facilitated approximations of approximations
Different African groups who spoke different languages had to communicate with each other, which helped shape and develop Haitian Creole over time
West African adult language learners superimposed European lexical items onto their West African language structures to form the Creoles.
Alleyne’s theory suggests that Africans combined European vocabulary with the grammar and structures of their own languages, which helped create new Creole languages.
Mufwene believes that Creoles are restructured versions of other languages. Restructuring causes the system of a language and/or the pragmatic principles regulating its use to be reorganized subsequent to competition-and-selection processes during language contact in the context of slavery.
Mufwene argues that Creole languages developed by changing and reorganizing existing languages as different groups interacted, especially during the period of slavery.
The innovative aspects of a creole grammar are inventions on the part of the first generation of children who have pidgin as their linguistic input
Bickerton argues that children create new grammatical structures when they learn a pidgin language, suggesting that Creole languages develop through the human ability to create and organize language.
Creoles
A pidgin that becomes a full language when children grow up learning it as their first language and develop more complex grammar.
pidgin
A communication system created between groups; usually learned as a second language and not spoken natively by children.
The one presented here for Haitian Creole—and later for Papiamentu—is the substrate view as posited by Mervyn Alleyne
The substrate theory argues that African languages influenced the development of Creole languages, shaping their structure and vocabulary despite European influence.
There are several theories that seek to explain the emergence of Creoles in the context of linguistic diversity involving African and European languages
Researchers have different explanations for how Creole languages developed from the interaction between African and European languages
One noticeable feature of this black republic was the presence of a French-lexified Creole, which was spoken by the mass of the population, and French, which was spoken by the elite members of the society
Language reflected social class differences in Haiti, with Creole being spoken by the majority of the population and French associated with wealth and power.
Hispaniola remained a French colony until it declared its independence in 1804 and simultaneously became the first black republic in the Western Hemisphere
Haiti’s independence was historically significant because it became the first nation in the Western Hemisphere led by formerly enslaved Black people.
As the need for labor on the sugar plantations increased, Africans were secured from the French trading posts in West Africa
The growth of plantations increased the demand for enslaved African labor, which contributed to the forced movement of Africans to Haiti.
by 1665 France claimed the western portion of Hispaniola as its own
Control of the island shifted from Spain to other European powers, especially France, which influenced the development of language and culture in Haiti.
Prior to European settlement, Haiti was inhabited by Amerindians comprised of mainly indigenous Tainos (Arawaks)
Before Europeans arrived, Indigenous peoples already lived on the island and had their own cultures and languages.
French Creole emerged in the Republic of Haiti—part of Hispaniola and historically called Saint-Domingue—because of language contact between French, British, and Africans in Hispaniola.
Haitian Creole developed when different groups came into contact and combined elements of their languages, creating a new way of communication.
the study of non-English-lexified Creoles has progressively become a point of academic interest
Researchers have started paying more attention to different Creole languages to better understand their history, development, and importance
Comparatively less had been done in relation to non-English-lexified Creoles
Creoles influenced by languages other than English were studied less, even though they are an important part of Caribbean culture and communication
Since the 1950s, linguistic research on Caribbean Creoles seemed primarily concerned with the description and analysis of English-lexified varieties
Early research focused mostly on Creole languages that were based on English, showing that some Creole varieties received more attention than others
challenges associated with efforts to legitimize these syncretic linguistic forms as “nation” languages
Creole languages, which developed by blending different languages and cultures, have faced struggles to be recognized as official national languages because of historical prejudice and discrimination
language ideology as the “mediated link between social structures and forms of talk
Language ideology connects the way society is organized (power, inequality, social groups) with the way people speak and view different languages
Both race and class inform language ideologies
People’s beliefs about language are influenced by social factors like race and class, which can determine which languages are viewed as valuable or acceptable
factors as level of education, choice of occupation, quality of housing, modes of dress, choice of entertainment, and the size and make of a person's dwelling have come to determine group membership
People are often judged and placed into social groups based on education, jobs, lifestyle, and material possessions
In addition to the racial dichotomy that influences language use, class dichotomies also influence language use
Language is affected not only by race but also by social class and economic status.
colonized Africans' languages, especially Creoles, have inferior status because of their exclusion from such institutions
African languages and Creoles were looked down upon because they were not given the same recognition or power as European languages
Europeans' languages—English, French, Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese—have been accepted as superior due to their use in colonial institutions
European languages gained power because they were used in schools, government, and legal systems controlled by colonizers
Language, which is a part of culture, has not been immune to this superior/inferior dichotomy
Language can reflect social inequalities because some languages are viewed as more valuable or prestigious than others.
white became accepted as the superior race and black as the inferior race.
Racist beliefs created a hierarchy that gave white people more power and unfairly treated Black people as less valuable.
excluded from colonial institutions
People of African descent were kept out of schools, government, and other systems that promoted European language and customs.
entrenched ideas of superior races and superior cultures
Over time, people came to believe that European (white) culture was better than African cultures.
division between the colonizers, who were Europeans, and the colonized,
Europeans held power, while the people they ruled had fewer rights and opportunities.
race and racism have been intricately bound to linguistic identity.
People's language or dialect became connected to how they were treated based on race.
several languages come into contact
Different languages mixed because people from many places were brought together in the Caribbean
an audit culture is only as successful as its ability to tap into situated contexts and effectively respond to the society it is intended to serve.
Accountability and testing are most effective when they consider the unique needs of different students, schools, and communities instead of using a one-size-fits-all approach.
They remind us that context matters
There is no single best way to teach literacy because effective instruction depends on students' backgrounds, experiences, and learning environments.
print and digital literacies set conditions for globalization that challenge the teaching of language.
As technology and globalization increase, teachers must help students develop both print and digital literacy skills to communicate and succeed in a global society.
young people whose literate identities in school often belie their out-of-school literate lives.
Students often use different literacy skills outside of school than they do in the classroom, so teachers should recognize and value both types of learning
the impact of different types of home literacy activities on children’s early and later literacy development,
Literacy experiences at home, such as reading with family, play an important role in developing children's reading and writing skills from an early age through later childhood.
the authors call for teachers and students to develop bi-dialectical expertise.
: Teachers and students should learn to use and understand more than one dialect such as a home dialect and Standard American English, so they can communicate effectively in different situations while respecting language diversity
the role that literacy plays in mediating this unrest.
Literacy helps adults navigate social, economic, and cultural changes by giving them the skills to communicate, learn, and adapt to different situations.
the challenge is to engage in what he calls “powerful teaching” as a means of addressing the age-old issue of low expectations.
Teachers must have high expectations for all students and use teaching methods that empower students rather than limit them based on assumptions about their abilities.
educators have successfully accommodated these demographic influences.
Teachers can create more effective literacy instruction by considering students’ backgrounds, cultures, experiences, and communities.
both constrain and enable a teacher’s ability to reach today’s students
Educational policies and social changes can create challenges for teachers, but they can also provide new opportunities to better connect with and teach students.
demographic changes, changes in English as a subject, and multiple literacies
High school English teachers must adapt to changing student populations, evolving curriculum, and different forms of literacy (digital, media, cultural, and traditional)
the importance of young adult literature
Young adult literature helps engage middle-grade students because the stories often relate to their interests, experiences, and challenges, making literacy more meaningful.
school-based literacy is mediated in part by young people’s ability to make connections to their lives outside of schoo
Students learn literacy better when they can connect what they read and write in school to their own experiences and everyday lives.
individual differences and varied text offerings.
Every student learns differently because of their abilities, experiences, and background. Teachers should provide many different types of reading materials to meet students' needs.
learners develop as readers and writers in the early and middle elementary years.
Focuses on how literacy skills improve during elementary school.
child-centered approach and a skills-based approach to early literacy education are neither separate nor distinct from one another.
Focuses on students' interests, experiences, and developmental needs. Emphasizes teaching specific reading and writing skills such as phonics, vocabulary, spelling, and comprehension. The authors argue these two teaching methods work together instead of competing.
Regardless of the perspective taken
The chapter authors have different opinions about these accountability measures, but they all agree that context matters because every classroom, school, and community is different.
“what works”
These expectations influence what is considered valuable in language and literacy education.
public and private sectors worldwide have witnessed a persistent rise in calls for accountability and objectivity in measurement.
Schools and teachers are increasingly expected to show evidence that their teaching methods "work."
audit culture,
which emphasizes accountability, testing, and objective measurement.