we randomly located six plots, each1 9 1 m, inside each F. japonica stand and sixadditional plots in the adjacent vegetation. Toestablish the plots outside the F. japonica stand, wedefined a boundary between the F. japonica andadjacent vegetation. We then randomly located theplots in the adjacent vegetation between 2 and 6 mfrom this boundary. We maintained the 2 m mini-mum distance to minimize shading and litter fall byF. japonica, and the 6 m maximum distance tominimize any preexisting soil differences betweenthe two vegetation types. Cover class of each plantspecies in each plot was visually estimated byclasses: 7 (75–100%), 6 (50–75%), 5 (25–50%), 4(10–20%), 3 (5–10%), 2 (1–5%), 1 (\1%) as used byBraun-Blanquet (1972). From Shannon diversityindices we calculated effective species richness

Specifically, the objective ofthis study was to test the following hypotheses: (1)F. japonica invasion reduces species richness anddiversity, (2) F. japonica invasion reduces availablemineral N in the soil, (3) F. japonica invasion in NorthAmerican deciduous forest increases primary produc-tivity and plant N uptake by creating massiveF. japonica monocultures, and (4) clonal integrationpromotes expansion of F. japonica stands.

We hypothesized that F. japonica greatly reducesdiversity of natives and slows nutrient cycling whereit invades natural communities of Massachusetts,USA. We further hypothesized that physiologicalsupport of vegetative offspring by connected, estab-lished F. japonica plants of the same clone facilitatesthese effects. F. japonica is an ideal model species inwhich to test for a role of clonal growth traits ininvasiveness and for effects of invasion on ecosystemproperties such as primary productivity, and nutrientcycling

Fallopia japonica (Japanese knotweed)invades riparian areas and roadsides in New England.This large clonal species drastically alters the appear-ance of habitats by forming highly productive near-monocultures. To understand how these invasionsaffect ecosystem processes in New England, wequantified the impacts of F. japonica on speciesdiversity, primary productivity, and nitrogen cycling

Biofilm formation and luminescence are critical for ini-tiation and maintenance of the association, respectively, suggesting that thecompound may link early and later development stages, providing further evi-dence that multiple small molecules are important in establishing these benefi-cial relationships.

Therefore it is likely there arespecialized metabolites used in the light organ microenvironment to modulatethese processes

In the 1970s, a reduction in the southern resident population size was due to the live capture killer whale fishery, with a slow recovery taking place following the cessation of this fishery. Recent reductions in the southern resident population are less understood, but a combination of factors have been suggested, including contaminant-related toxicity, declining prey abundance (salmon), and heavy vessel traffic, or a combination of these factors.

To explore the population history of the Andean highlands, we first assess the genetic affinities of the prehistoric individuals and compare them to modern South Americans and other ancient Native Americans. Second, we construct a demographic model that estimates the timing of the lowland-highland population split as well as the population collapse following European contact, and last, we explore evidence for genetic changes associated with selective pressures associated with the permanent occupation of the highlands, the intensification of tuber usage, and the impact of European-borne diseases.

How-ever, there seems to be a complex web of trade-offs betweentraits depending on the type of surface and inclination, andlikely many other unmeasured factors such as hardness orstatic-electric properties of the substrates

Although our study design did not allow us to fully inves-tigate correlated trait effects on sprint spee

However, this improved performance comes atan apparent cost: on steep inclines, lizards with relativelylonger forelimbs run more slowly. This suggests that inurban areas selection to run quickly on the ground may bestronger than selection for fast running on inclined surfaces.Previous studies have similarly identified trade-offs in per-formance involving traits beneficial for vertical, complex,arboreal habitat use versus those more appropriate foropen, flat, terrestrial habitat use [31–34]. We build on thisby presenting evidence suggesting a trade-off also existsforA. cristatelluslimb length at gradual versus steeperinclinations.

Such a substantial decrease in performance providesinsight into the mechanisms of natural selection in urbanareas. If a lizard is unable to run or maintain position onsmooth substrates it would be unable to use more thantwo-thirds of the urban habitat and would likely have troubleescaping from predators. In fact, studies have demonstratedthat faster sprint speed in lizards is favoured by naturaland sexual selection

1)locomotorperformance should differ between man-made and naturalsubstrates, and we predict a decrease in performance associatedwith man-made surfaces. (2) Lizard morphology will be corre-lated with sprint performance, and urban lizards shouldexhibit phenotypic shifts in functionally relevant traits. (3)Consequently, urban and forest lizards will differ from eachother in locomotor ability, particularly on man-made surfaces.Finally, (4) urban lizards should use a broader range of perchesthan forest lizards, although habitat use may be correlatedwith locomotor performance (habitat constraint and breadthhypotheses). Addressing these four hypotheses will help usquantify the role of locomotor performance in urban habitatsas a mechanism driving morphological divergence

f discriminatory habitat use (constraint)is related to performance, then lizards with less-than-optimalphenotypes may behaviourally avoid novel urban selectionpressures and impede evolution. Conversely, if individualswith the most appropriate phenotypes tend to expand intonovel urban spaces (breadth), evolutionary change may bepromoted

. Winchellet al. [5] showed that individualA. cristatellususe anthropogenic and vegetative elements ofthe urban habitat to differing degrees, which suggests someurban lizards may be constrained in their habitat use, whileothers capitalize on the novel habitat and expand theirresource utilization.

Prior research onAnolislizards (anoles) has establisheda strong connection between limb morphology and sprinting [6–8]. In general,lizards with longer limbs run faster, although this effect depends on perchdiameter with the greatest benefit on flat surfaces [9]. On inclined perchesbody width also influences sprint speed by lowering the centre of mass andincreasing stability [10,11]. In addition, both toepad area and lamella numberare correlated with clinging performance and habitat use: lizards with largertoepads and more lamellae exert stronger cling forces and perch higher

Research has shown that urban populations of the lizardAnoliscristatellusexhibit morphological shifts compared to forest populations. Urbanlizards have relatively longer limbs and more subdigital scales called lamellae,used in adhesion to smooth surfaces

Although agents of selection respon-sible for these shifts have not been shown, Winchellet al. [4,5] documentedsubstantial differences in habitat openness, perch width and perch roughnessbetween forest and urban sites and showed that urbanA. cristatelluscommonlyuse anthropogenic structures.

Adaptation to a novel habitat involves not only phenotypic change, but afunctional benefit resulting in increased fitness. This phenotype–performance–fitness paradigm provides a framework for understanding adaptive phenotypicdifferentiation [1–3]. In short, natural selection acts on performance in a givenhabitat. If performance is correlated with heritable phenotypic variation inmorphology, selection can result in morphological change

Anolisis a diverse neotropical lizard genus containingapproximately 400 species. They are perhaps best known forrepeatedly converging in ecology and morphology on differentCaribbean islands, and for rapid adaptation in response tochanging environmental conditions

Fascinatingly, the Andean highlanders also acquired the ability to digest potatoes, a domesticated crop derived from wild tubers.

Migrations into North and South America, weren’t as straightforward as we thought. This graphic shows possible migration routes, as posited by the new Cell study.

It’s highly unlikely that this population sailed from Australia or Indonesia to South America. Rather, this group likely trekked northward from their point of origin, venturing through China and Siberia. This population likely didn’t spend too much time in North America, eventually finding their way into South America, while leaving no genetic trace of their journey—aside from this lone specimen in Lagoa Santa.

identified a previously unknown population with a distinctly Australasian genetic marker—a very surprising discovery.

these researchers determined that, around 8,000 years ago, the ancestors of Native Americans were still on the move, migrating away from Mesoamerica (what is today Mexico and Central America) toward both North and South America.

the movement of the first humans as they spread across the Americas, venturing both southward and northward and sometimes mixing in with the local populations.

Two regulatory networks are needed tounderstand the diversity of beak form. Our results are consistentwith the hypothesis that beak differences in Darwin’sfinches areestablished by combined and complementary changes in regu-lation of the pnc and the pmx

Wefind thatthe pnc in early development and the pmx during late de-velopment are regulated by two different sets of molecules

Our previous studies of pnc formationin Darwin’sfinches identified two signaling molecules,Bmp4andCaMthat regulate early differences in beak morphogenesis (18,19) and so provide a partial explanation for beak-shape differ-ences betweenfinch species

In this study, we aimed to un-derstand how changes in developmental controls of a morpho-logical trait may constrain or facilitate diversification. To thisend, we focused on unraveling the molecular and developmentalmechanisms responsible for patterning the differences in avianbeak shapes—which are usually associated with differences indiet and ecological niche—by taking advantage of the naturaldiversity of beak shapes in the iconic Darwin’sfinches.

Developmental selection is a particularlypowerful mechanism of producing adaptive plasticity in novel environments because it requiresno prior evolutionary history with an environment for a potential phenotype match, and complexfunctional phenotypes can emerge from relatively simple developmental rules (Frank 1996, Hullet al. 2001, Kirschner & Gerhart 1998).

evelopmental switches may move organisms toward a new optimumfor some forms of environmental change, but they are the least likely to result in an adaptiveplastic response in novel conditions when environmental change is extreme or discrete. Instead,generalized physiological mechanisms and developmental selection represent forms of plasticitythat may “preadapt” organisms to novel conditions.

Although phenotypic plasticity affects a range of disparate organismal functions, we arguethat the developmental mechanisms, or causes, of plasticity can be classified into three broadcategories: evolved developmental switches, generalized physiological responses to stressors, anddevelopmental selection.

Indeed, prolonged labour poses a risk of infection by opportunistic microbionts

By coevolving with the host, the microbiome has shaped phenotypes in our ancestral lineages

Conversely,epigeneticvariationmightbeofprimeinterestinfluctuatingenvironment,henceincreasingtheeffectofselectiononepigeneticcomparedwithgeneticvariationintheseenvironment

Moregenerally,DNAmethylationinducedbyenvironmentalstress-orsduringdevelopmentthatproducesmaladaptivephenotypescanhavenegativeconsequencesinpopulations

Partofaorganism'sepigeneticlandscape(i.e.theepigeneticstatusatthegenome-widescale),andparticularlythatofDNAmethylation,canbemodulatedbyenvironmentalfactorseitherbiotic(e.g.socialenvironmentandparasites)orabiotic(e.g.temperature,droughtandchemicals

Such“epigeneticmutations”areknowntobemorecommonthangeneticmutationsandarereversible

theshort-terminteractionbetweenin-dividualsandtheirenvironmentismostlyignoredbecausegeneticsusuallyrepresentsthelong-termhistoryofpopulations

genetictoolsallowconservationbiologiststoaddresskeyissuessuchasestimatingdemographicparametersandadap-tivepotential,characterizingpopulationstructure,delimitingtaxo-nomicgroupsandevolutionary significant units(ESUs),andmanagingassistedgeneflowandpopulationrescuestrategies

hus only epi-polymorphic sites that are decoupled from genetic similarity should be significant, although residual popu-lation structure can still remain (Atwell et al. 2010; Brachi et al. 2010) and the genetic loci in close linkage disequilibrium with the epi-polymorphic sites cannot be ruled out as the causative drivers at this preliminzj stage.

Interestingly, another very successful introduced species, the house sparrow, also shows a great deal of epigenetic variation (Schrey et al. 2012: Liebl et al. 2013). Recently introduced birds had a higher proportion of methylation than did birds in older populations (Schrey et al. 2012).

Epigenetic modifications contribute to phenotypic variation (Jablonka 2013), which may have wide ecological implications (Table 7 .1), including phenotypic plasticity in response to different environments

However, not all who call themselves “integrative biologists” agree with these general principles.

: experimental designs that enable testing the hypothesis whether study objects which take into account students’ interest in plants indeed raise long-lasting interest and lead to higher learning outcome regarding botanical topics.

who show that students prefer living organisms that are of value for human use.

Consequently, students’ lack of knowledge about plants hinders them from seeing the full extent of such important problems as global warming.