ere sent out to different towns and live with white families to learn how they lived.

increased emphasis on athletics was enforced.

Pratt was eventually relieved as Superintendent of the Carlisle Indian School in 1904 and soon his strict disciplinary ideals for the school were relaxed.

The students were paid for their services and the money earned was deposited in an interest-bearing bank account by the school, and then given to the student when he or she graduated

Many of the children suffered from separation anxiety, smallpox and tuberculosis

Food was scarce and of poor quality. Illness and death among the children were common

guardhouse contained four cells in which children were locked, sometimes for up to a week

hard labor and confinement to the guardhouse.

their punishment was determined by an organized justice system of their peers.

mouths washed with lye soap for speaking in any language other than English.

Military style discipline was strictly enforced with regular drill practices and the children were expected to march to their classes, and from the classes, to the dining hall for meals. Beatings were a common form of punishment for students' grieving behaviors, speaking their native languages, failure to understand English, or attempting to escape and violating the harsh military rules.

disapproved of the military discipline and Christian evangelizing the school imposed on its students.

half-day on academic classes and the other half learning various in trades

Pratt even hired photographers to illustrate the before and after "contrast" photos of the students which were then sent to officials in Washington to prove that the school was in good order.

After replacing Indian dress with military uniforms for the boys and Victorian style dresses for the girls, the Indians' physical appearance was transformed.

"In our culture, the only time we cut hair is when we are in mourning or when someone has died in the immediate family. We do this to show we are mourning the loss of a loved one,"

One of the staff's first responsibilities was to hire a barber to cut the children's long hair

Dakota Territory to recruit students by persuading tribal elders and Chiefs that the reason the washichu (Lakota word for "white man") were able to take their land was because the Indians were uneducated.

The prisoners adapted completely to European-American ways which encouraged Pratt to open an all-Indian boarding school of his own.

Transfer the savage-born infant to the surroundings of civilization and he will grow to possess a civilized language and habit

goal of "assimilation" was to systematically strip away any trace of tribal culture and to train them to become "useful" in American industrial society.

Historian Francis Parkman once wrote in 1851 that "the aborigine was by nature unchangeable and by fate doomed to extinctio

Carlisle's band was a huge, national sensation too

After Carlisle, he become a lawyer and coach:

From right to left, Carlisle star Albert Exendine, Coach Pop Warner, and Trainer Denny Wallace

Carlisle was expected to lose, but almost tied... a bad call by a ref cancelled their final touchdown:

Sioux Chief American Horse, who after traveling to DC and seeing people "like ants" was one of the first American Indian leaders to send his children to Carlisle.

They made such a strong case, that Pratt relented. And in just a few short years, Carlisle was making headlines, winning games, and becoming one of the favorite teams in the country. 

ould be very helpful to these students to relieve the tortured muscles unaccustomed to long sitting, to expand the poorly developed chests and to form a habit of quick obedience

to expiate the sins of the past by heroic work in the present.

Native American women to move on to regular nursing schools,

his may be a reason for Carlisle President Richard H. Pratt's letter to a physician in 1884, requesting help in selecting "healthy children" for the school from Indian reservations in the West. This letter is displayed here.

were originally brought to Carlisle as hostages to insure that their parents would not continue armed resistance against the United States Army.

encouraging runaways and undermining the schools’ influence during summer and school breaks. An 1893 court ruling increased pressure to keep Indian children in Boarding schools. It was not until 1978 with the passing of the Indian Child Welfare Act that Native American parents gained the legal right to deny their children’s placement in off-reservation schools.

Indian agents on the reservations normally resorted to withholding rations or sending in agency police to enforce the school policy.

Implanting ideas of sin and a sense of guilt were part of Sunday schools. Christianity governed gender relations at the schools and most schools

Girls learned to cook, clean, sew, care for poultry and do laundry for the entire institution. Boys learned industrial skills such as blacksmithing, shoemaking or performed manual labor such as farming.

The Indian boarding schools taught history with a definite white bias. Columbus Day was heralded as a banner day in history and a beneficent development in their own race’s fortune, as only after discovery did Indians enter the stream of history. Thanksgiving was a holiday to celebrate “good” Indians having aided the brave Pilgrim Fathers. New Year’s was a reminder of how white people kept track of time and George Washington’s birthday served as a reminder of the Great White Father.

At the better boarding schools, students could attain a reasonable degree of English literacy in a relatively short period. At other schools, the method of teaching — an object card such as CAT shown to students, then written, pronounced and traced — failed to produce a comprehension of those words that had no equivalent in their Native tongue.

The long braids worn by Indian boys were cut off. The children were made to wear standard uniforms. The children were given new “white” names, including surnames, as it was felt this would help when they inherited property

. In 1879, he established the most well known of the off-reservation boarding schools, the Carlisle Indian School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. As Headmaster of the school for 25 years, he was the single most impacting figure in Indian education during his time.

meaning you care about yourself and what you as a person own. This opposed the basic Indian belief of communal ownership, which held that the land was for all people.

The reservation boarding school spent half a day teaching English and academics and half a day on industrial training

Arithmetic, science, history and the arts would be added to open the possibility of discovering the “self-directing power of thought.”

Indian people would be taught the importance of private property, material wealth and monogamous nuclear families.

There is no proven treatment for smallpox disease. Prevention is achieved through vaccination.

The last case of smallpox in the United States was in 1949.

smallpox include fever, malaise, head and body aches, and sometimes vomiting. The fever is usually high, in the range of 101 to 104 degrees Fahrenheit. At this time, people are usually too sick to carry on their normal activities.

At this stage the infected person is usually very sick and not able to move around in the community. The infected person is contagious until the last smallpox scab falls off.

Smallpox also can be spread through direct contact with infected bodily fluids or contaminated objects such as bedding or clothing.

bioterrorism. For this reason, the U.S. government is taking precautions for dealing with a smallpox outbreak.

variola virus that emerged in human populations thousands of years ago.

serious, contagious, and sometimes fatal infectious disease.

TB is spread through the air

a bad cough that lasts 3 weeks or longerpain in the chestcoughing up blood or sputumweakness or fatigueweight lossno appetitechillsfeversweating at night

TB disease can be treated by taking several drugs, usually for 6 to 9 months. It is very important to finish the medicine, and take the drugs exactly as prescribed. If you stop taking the drugs too soon, you can become sick again.

The TB bacteria are put into the air when a person with TB disease of the lungs or throat coughs, sneezes, speaks, or sings.

A cemetery was also needed. At the Carlisle school, as on the reservation the health of many Indian people was in peril as a result of contact with Euro- Americans. Some students were stricken with tuberculosis or smallpox. Others could not cope with the severe stress of separation from family and tribe. Most of the children who became ill were sent back home to their families, but some did pass away at the school and were buried there. Of all the children buried in this graveyard, the Apache represent the greatest number.

The original group of 82 grew to yearly averages of 1,000 students, necessitating more living and classroom space. The students built an administration building, a gymnasium for athletics, shops for the industrial training, and a chapel for worship on the grounds.

over its 39 year life span, most returned to the reservation.

Pratt is often quoted as saying "Kill the Indian, save the man".

Some children remained with families year-round and went to the local public schools with their non-Indian siblings. This, to Pratt, was the ultimate assimilator.

Pratt often referred to himself as the school father.

Instead of returning the Indian children to their families during the summer months, the detribalizing process was continued by placing them for hire with non-Indian families

Every student took music classes and many received private instruction.

About 50 of these drawings may be seen in the collection of the Cumberland County Historical Society. The later drawings found in the collection show the progress of assimilation. One finds pictures of cows, carpenter's tools, floral arrangements, still life. Gone are the buffalo and warriors on horseback drawings. It was not until after Pratt left Carlisle that students were again encouraged to pursue their native culture through art.

nd I have a blue suit to where and there was one Shyenne boy shot himself with a pistol

Among his supporters were former abolitionists and Quakers who were eager to be involved in his success and who often visited the school. They were treated to special programs - concerts and dramas, written and performed by the students

This became a small source of income to supplement funding by the government which was always inadequate.

Discipline was strictly enforced - military style. There was regular drill practice and the children were ranked, with the officers in command. A court system was implemented in the hierarchal style of a military justice system, with students determining the consequences for offences. The most severe punishment was to be confined to the guardhouse. The old guardhouse, built by Hessian prisoners during the Revolutionary War, still stands.

Uniforms were issued for the boys, the girls dressed in Victorian-style dresses. Shoes were required, as no moccasins were allowed. The boys and girls were organized into companies with officers who took charge of drill. The children marched to and from their classes, and to the dining hall for meals. No one was allowed to speak their native tongue.

School life was modeled after military life.

Half the group learned reading, writing and arithmetic in the mornings, and carpentry, tinsmithing, blacksmithing for the boys, or cooking, sewing, laundry, baking, and other domestic arts for the girls in the afternoons.

The school was structured with academics for half day and trades, the other half.

One of their first responsibilities was to hire a barber to cut the children's long hair. For the Lakota, the cutting of hair was symbolic of mourning and there was much wailing and lamenting which lasted into the night.

But when Pratt, Miss Mather and the children arrived at the empty military post, tired and hungry, there were no provisions awaiting them. No bedding, no food, no clothing - none of the requested necessities. Once again, Pratt had been thwarted by the BIA. The children slept on the floor in their blankets.

Luther Standing Bear was among the first wave of students to travel to Carlisle. He described the journey east in his book, "My People, the Sioux". He talked of traveling on a moving house - his first experience on a railroad car. As they pulled into stations along the way, crowds of curious people peered into the trains, anxious for a look at these 'wild' children. Pratt had telegraphed Chicago of their stopover and the newspapers had publicized the journey. This was only three years since the Battle of the Greasy Grass in which Custer had been killed.

Both Etadleuh (Kiowa) and Okahaton (Cheyenne) agreed to find more children to send to the first off-reservation boarding school for Indian children.

Red Cloud had no children to send, but sent a grandson. American Horse sent three children. All in all, 82 children from both agencies were sent to Carlisle after medical examinations determined their fitness.

Pratt also predicted that no matter what happened, the white man would keep coming and coming and that Spotted Tail's people must "be able to meet him face to face and take care of themselves and their property without the help of either an interpreter or an Indian agent." Spotted Tail consulted with his tribal headmen and after a long time, returned with his consent. "It is all right. We are going to give you all the children you want. I am going to send five, Milk will send his boy and girl, and the others are going to send the rest."

These were to be children from Spotted Tail's Rosebud reservation and Red Cloud's Pine Ridge Agency. Pratt's instructions were to recruit 36 students from each reservation.

model similar to Hampton - but exclusively for Indians

Its goal was to train and return them to their communities to become leaders and professionals among their people. This fit Pratt's developing philosophies about assimilation, with the exception of returning to community.

He agreed that to 'civilize' the Indian would be to turn him into a copy of his God-fearing, soil-tilling, white brother.

The Indian Reformers who were predominantly Quakers and missionaries began to explore ways to 'civilize' the Indians.

But many of the Cheyenne and Arapaho warriors continued with their raiding parties in search of game and buffalo. Scant provisions and lack of supplies on the reservations made it impossible for the Indian people to thrive, forcing such raids.

Pratt developed a distrust and loathing of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) which endured throughout his military service. This deep hostility began while he was administering supplies on the reservations and eventually led to his resignation as the superintendent of the Carlisle Indian School in 1904.

the Carlisle Indian School is the cemetery for students who died at the school and whose remains could not be returned to their families.

latt in charge of 72 Indian warriors imprisoned in Florida. Platt imposed military discipline on the prisoners, but also arranged to teach them to read. Based on this experience, he developed a scheme to assimilate India

was the model for nearly 150 Indian schools

140 tribes between 1879 and 1918

Native peoples improved their English and learned about the outside world. Natives' service in World War II promoted a conservative call "to set Indians free" from their reservations. After the war, Native peoples were encouraged to leave their reservations and relocate to cities where it was hoped they would find jobs,

In the 1890s

and parents who would not send their children to school risked having rations cut off and even being jailed.

he government also banned traditional Native religious ceremonies

The fact that the Catholics were more successful than the Protestants in setting up schools for American Indians using government funding led to the government's ending funding for missionary schools in the 1890s and operating their own schools, which tended to teach a nondenominational Protestant-oriented Christianity.

it fed the egotism and ethnocentrism of white Americans and Europeans and provided renewed justification for assimilating American Indians into Euro-American white culture.

He wanted Native students to become Christians, stay in the East after they left Carlisle, become U.S. citizens, and even to intermarry with whites

Pratt also placed Native students into white households for months or more in what he called the Outing System

Pratt's idea of starting a boarding school for Native peoples in the eastern United States was to get Native children as far away from their parents as possible so that they would totally assimilate.

A leader in this effort was Army Lt. Richard Henry Pratt, who founded the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania in 1879.

barbarous dialect should be blotted out and the English language substituted."

President Andrew Jackson, chose to emphasize a policy in the 1820s and 1830s of what is now called ethnic cleansing to make Native lands available to white settlers.

"for the purpose of providing against the further decline and final extinction of the Indian tribes, adjoining the frontier settlements of the United States, and for introducing among them the habits and arts of civilization."

American Indian schools run by missionaries and supported by the government.

Because of a drive in Christianity to convert nonbelievers, European colonists sought to make Christians of American Indians

By removing their horses and guns, and splitting the ethnic groups up as well as mixing them together, the US government hoped to weaken traditional group structures and eventually remove the Indian problem altogether.

most of the Indian agents withheld these rations and sometimes even stole the money sent by the US government

when settlers and gold miners travelling to California and Oregon had crossed the Great Plains. These two groups had entered the lands set aside for the American Indians and crossed the lands without any reference to the treaties between the USA and the Indians. In response to the invasion of their hunting grounds or sacred areas, some of the Plains Indians fought back to defend their rights. This led to the US Army being forced to tackle the Plains Indian warriors, at considerable cost to their soldiers and equipment

worthless land. Here their traditional way of life would be unsustainable and they would no longer be a threat to the settlers.

subject to federal and tribal, but not generally to state, laws.

while poverty and dependence on the federal government has afflicted many, others have prospered from business ventures on the reservations, including logging, mining, oil and gas extraction, tax-free retailing, tourism and recreational development, and, most recently, operation of gambling establishments.

press called them “World Champions.”

“Double ball,” for example, was played among many Native American cultures in the Rockies and was often known as “woman's ball.”

basketball guru after leaving Denver, the girls became famous in Montana after winning an unofficial state championship in 1902–1903, including one win against the women of Montana Agricultural College in Bozeman, where more than 800 fans watched the game.

Model Indian School, designed to showcase the assimilationist programs of the U.S. government's Indian boarding schools.

institutions in which they were forbidden to speak their native languages; given new, foreign names; forced to wear alien and uncomfortable clothing; required to change their appearance, most notably by cutting their hair; and taught the propriety of European American actions, institutions, and values. Instruction stressed vocational over intellectual training, military discipline over self-expression.

not as a means of enlightenment but as a means of incorporation. It sought simultaneously to secure peace and advance assimilation

formal instruction began well before the founding of the United States, an important component of European colonial policies, often implemented by missionaries

hey were not fully comfortable in either white or reservation societies

complete assimilation, one of his main goals

Following a long train journey from the West, Indian children arriving at Carlisle were dressed in European-American clothing, had their hair cut, and were forced to speak English only.

The school offered basic academics at a grammar-school level, supplemented by extensive trade training. Noted features of the school included a print shop, a band, and a football team, which played competitively against Ivy League colleges in the 1890s

summer living and working with white families

School.

Countless new alliances, both personal and political, were forged in government boarding schools.

t asserted that government boarding schools needlessly separated families and that children were often malnourished, sick, insufficiently clothed, overworked, harshly punished, and poorly trained.

Many Indian schools, including Haskell, Carlisle, Chemawa (in Oregon), and others, maintained cemeteries to bury the many Indian children who succumbed to sickness and disease.

boarding schools relied heavily on unpaid student labor for their operation

The girl, miserable because of painful lesions on her legs that refused to heal, complained about the constant drilling and marching that was so much a part of the boarding-school regimen.

Little effort was made to provide afflicted children with special care or enriched diets.

In the early twentieth century trachoma, a contagious and painful eye disease, afflicted nearly half of the boarding-school population.

Jim Thorpe, the most famous Native American

eputation for athleticism and winning football teams

students were to spend half the day in the classroom and the remainder in manual labor

the final year Carlisle was in operation, fifty-eight tribes were represented in the student body

Officials limited the frequency and duration of children's visits to their families, contending that relatives and other community members would hinder the work of assimilation, or that newly reformed and educated students would lapse into their former “degraded” lifestyles

thousands of Native American children and youth were sent to live, work, and be educated in the schools.

would diminish the influence of tribalism on a new generation of American Indians

Only when the player does something that isn’t mandated by the system can she be said to be playing.

breaking the game — seeing where its limits of verisimilitude are drawn. Since my team manager never commented on my outrageously dangerous behaviour

Follow the rules, achieve results, and you are rewarded with bits of symbolic currency

What happens at work, in the factory, or in the office can only be escaped from by approximation to it in one’s leisure time.

cognitive work

The father, too busy playing, doesn’t hear him. “He’s losing his mind,” the son says.

I thought it was important, more important than anything else in the world.

[He] quickly became enamored with making money

games, my lazy eye didn’t matter anymore because the screen I was playing the games on had no depth; it was flat.

I had recently been skipped ahead from first grade to second grade and the new teacher was worried about me. I was keeping up with the class fine, I was having no problem with that, she said in the note, but she was worried about me because all I would ever write or talk or draw about in class or in my journal or for homework were video games

olfactory