if it happems anyone heretofore has bought from our treasury from anyone whatsoever, those places where they were previously accustomed to assemble, concerning which a certain decree had been made and a letter sent to you officially, the same shall be restored to the Christians without payment or any claim of recompense and without any kind of fraud or deception, Those, moreover, who have obtained the same by gift, are likewise to return them at once to the Christians.

we have also conceded to other religions the right of open and free observance of their worship for the sake of the peace of our times, that each one may have the free opportunity to worship as he pleases ; this regulation is made we that we may not seem to detract from any dignity or any religion.

it has pleased us to remove all conditions whatsoever, which were in the rescripts formerly given to you officially, concerning the Christians and now any one of these who wishes to observe Christian religion may do so freely and openly, without molestation

no one whatsoever should be denied the opportunity to give his heart to the observance of the Christian religion, of that religion which he should think best for himself, so that the Supreme Deity, to whose worship we freely yield our hearts) may show in all things His usual favor and benevolence

we might grant to the Christians and others full authority to observe that religion which each preferred;

those regulations pertaining to the reverence of the Divinity ought certainly to be made first,

Moreover, he made the priests of God his counselors, and deemed it incumbent on him to honor the God who had appeared to him with all devotion. And after this, being fortified by well-grounded hopes in Him, he hastened to quench the threatening fire of tyranny.

A long spear, overlaid with gold, formed the figure of the cross by means of a transverse bar laid over it. On the top of the whole was fixed a wreath of gold and precious stones; and within this, the symbol of the Saviour's name, two letters indicating the name of Christ by means of its initial characters, the letter P being intersected by X in its centre: and these letters the emperor was in the habit of wearing on his helmet at a later period. From the cross-bar of the spear was suspended a cloth, a royal piece, covered with a profuse embroidery of most brilliant precious stones; and which, being also richly interlaced with gold, presented an indescribable degree of beauty to the beholder.

bidding them represent it in gold and precious stones

then in his sleep the Christ of God appeared to him with the same sign which he had seen in the heavens, and commanded him to make a likeness of that sign which he had seen in the heavens, and to use it as a safeguard in all engagements with his enemies.

trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, CONQUER BY THIS.

But since the victorious emperor himself long afterwards declared it to the writer of this history, when he was honored with his acquaintance and society, and confirmed his statement by an oath, who could hesitate to accredit the relation, especially since the testimony of after-time has established its truth?

a most marvelous sign appeared to him from heaven, the account of which it might have been hard to believe had it been related by any other person.

while one alone who had pursued an entirely opposite course, who had condemned their error, and honored the one Supreme God during his whole life, had formal I him to be the Saviour and Protector of his empire, and the Giver of every good thing.

those who had rested their hopes in a multitude of gods, and served them with sacrifices and offerings, had in the first place been deceived by flattering predictions, and oracles which promised them all prosperity, and at last had met with an unhappy end, while not one of their gods had stood by to warn them of the impending wrath of heaven

deeming the possession of arms and a numerous soldiery of secondary importance, but believing the co-operating power of Deity invincible and not to be shaken. He considered, therefore, on what God he might rely for protection and assistance.

wicked and magical enchantments which were so diligently practiced by the tyrant

that he needed some more powerful aid than his military forces could afford him

All the provinces washed by the sea, as far as Asia and Achaia, and the whole expanse of country inland towards Pontus and Armenia, took the oath of allegiance

Before the 15th of July the whole of Syria had adopted the same alliance. There joined him, each with his entire kingdom, Sohemus, who had no contemptible army, and Antiochus, who possessed vast ancestral wealth, and was the richest of all the subject-kings.

In Vespasian there appeared no sign of elation or arrogance, or of any change arising from his changed fortunes.

called him Caesar and Augustus

While they were seeking a suitable time and place, and for that which in such an affair is the great difficulty, the first man to speak, while hope, fear, the chances of success or of disaster, were present to their minds, one day, on Vespasian quitting his chamber, a few soldiers who stood near, in the usual form in which they would salute their legate, suddenly saluted him as Emperor

impulsive action of the soldiers without the preliminary of a formal harangue or any concentration of the legions.

though the army of Judaea on July 3rd took the oath to Vespasian in person with such eager alacrity that they would not wait for the return of his son Titus, who was then on his way back from Syria, acting as the medium between Mucianus and his father for the communication of their plans.

who on the 1st of July made the legions swear allegiance to him.

Alexandria

Plebeian magistrates came after patrician; Latin magistrates after plebeian; magistrates of other Italian peoples after Latin.

now are with us by manners, education, and intermarriage,

never has one been finished in a shorter time than that with the Gauls.

Well, we also gave hostages to the Etruscans, and passed under the yoke of the Samnites.

But, it will be said, we have fought with the Senones. I suppose then that the Volsci and Aequi never stood in array against us. Our city was taken by the Gauls.

he fought as enemies and then hailed as fellow-citizens several nations on the very same day.

they spurned from them as aliens those whom they had conquered?

Are we sorry that the Balbi came to us from Spain, and other men not less illustrious from Narbon Gaul?

We had unshaken peace at home; we prospered in all our foreign relations, in the days when Italy beyond the Po was admitted to share our citizenship,

that the Julii came from Alba, the Coruncanii from Camerium, the Porcii from Tusculum, and not to inquire too minutely into the past, that new members have been brought into the Senate from Etruria and Lucania and the whole of Italy, that Italy itself was at last extended to the Alps, to the end that not only single persons but entire countries and tribes might be united under our name.

transferring to this city all conspicuous merit, wherever found.

These and like arguments failed to impress the emperor.

Italy," it was asserted, "is not so feeble as to be unable to furnish its own capital with a senate. Once our native-born citizens sufficed for peoples of our own kin, and we are by no means dissatisfied with the Rome of the past. To this day we cite examples, which under our old customs the Roman character exhibited as to valour and renown. Is it a small thing that Veneti and Insubres have already burst into the Senate-house, unless a mob of foreigners, a troop of captives, so to say, is now forced upon us? What distinctions will be left for the remnants of our noble houses, or for any impoverished senators from Latium? Every place will be crowded with these millionaires, whose ancestors of the second and third generations at the head of hostile tribes destroyed our armies with fire and sword, and actually besieged the divine Julius at Alesia. These are recent memories. What if there were to rise up the remembrance of those who fell in Rome's citadel and at her altar by the hands of these same barbarians! Let them enjoy indeed the title of citizens, but let them not vulgarise the distinctions of the Senate and the honours of office."

it was argued before the emperor with vehement opposition

the rights of allies and of Roman citizens,

and the chief men of Gallia Comata,

In the consulship of Aulus Vitellius and Lucius Vipstanus

as they were continually deranged by violence, intrigue, and finally by corruption.

the remaining nobles, the readier they were to be slaves, were raised the higher by wealth and promotion,

won over the soldiers with gifts, the populace with cheap corn, and all men with the sweets of repose

he was a Consul, and was satisfied with a tribune's authority for the protection of the people

Caesar

Lepidus pushed aside and (Mark) Antony slain

When after the destruction of Brutus and Cassius there was no longer any army of the Republic, when Pompey was crushed in Sicily,

The histories of Tiberius, Caius (Caligula), Claudius, and Nero, while they were in power, were falsified through terror, and after their death were written under the irritation of a recent hatred.

The despotisms of Cinna and Sulla were brief; the rule of Pompey and of Crassus soon yielded before Caesar; the arms of Lepidus and (Mark) Antony before Augustus;

Dictatorships were held for a temporary crisis. The power of the decemvirs did not last beyond two years, nor was the consular jurisdiction of the military tribunes of long duration

decemvirs

Rome at the beginning was ruled by kings. Freedom and the consulship were established by Lucius Brutus.

it confers a great reputation, and great distinction to be accompanied by those whom you have defended and saved in the law courts

See that those who do so spontaneously understand that you regard yourself as forever obliged by their extreme kindness;

Secondly, to those who escort you to the Forum: since this is a much greater attention than a mere morning call, indicate clearly that they are still more gratifying to you; and with them, as far as it shall lie in your power, go down to the Forum at fixed times, for the daily escort by its numbers produces a great impression and confers great personal distinction.

you must contrive to think that you value even this slight attention very highly. It often happens that people when they visit a number of candidates, and observe the one that pays special heed to their attentions, leave off visiting the others, and little by little become real supporters of this man.

Your visitors are of three kinds: one consists of morning callers who come to your house, a second of those who escort you to the Forum, the third of those who attend you on your canvass.

After having thus worked for the "rural vote", the centuries of the equites too seem capable of being won over if you are careful

If you can attach to yourself the leading men in these, you will by their means easily keep a hold upon the multitude

senators and equites

magistrates, consuls and their tribunes

more regular grounds of relationship by blood or marriage, the membership in the same club, or some close tie or other. You must take great pains that these men should love you and desire your highest honor.

Also take pains to get on your side the young men of high rank, and keep the friendship of those whom you already have. They will contribute much to your political position.

he has the good wishes of men of high rank, and especially of ex-consuls

See that you retain these advantages by reminding these persons, by appealing to them, and by using every means to make them understand that this, and this only, is the time for those who are in your debt now, to show their gratitude, and for those who wish for your services in the future, to place you under an obligation.

Therefore approach each individual case with the persuasion that on it depends as a whole your entire reputation

"I am a novus homo [i.e. without noble ancestry]. "I am a candidate for the consulship." "This is Rome." For the "newness" of your name you will best compensate by the brilliance of your oratory.

I will absolve myself of blame, and I will not free myself from punishment. No woman shall use Lucretia as her example in dishonor." Then she took up a knife which she had hidden beneath her robe, and plunged it into her heart, collapsing from her wound; she died there amid the cries of her husband and father.

they tried to appease her sorrow, saying that it was the soul that did wrong, and not the body, and because she had had no bad intention, she did no wrong.

It was Sextus Tarquinius who returned our hospitality with enmity last night. With his sword in his hand, he came to take his pleasure for my unhappiness,

My body is greatly soiled, though my heart is still pure, as my death will prove.

Very bad," she replied, "how can anothing go well for a woman who has lost her honor?

Lucretia, overcome with sorrow and shame, sent messengers both to her husband at Ardea and her father at Rome, asking them each to come "at once, with a good friend, because a very terrible thing had happened."

When I have killed you, I will put next to you the body of a nude servant, and everyone will say that you were killed during a dishonorable act of adultery."

extus Tarquinius declared his love for her, begging and threatening her alternately, and attacked her soul in every way.

Then he took up his sword and went to Lucretia's bedroom, and placing his sword against her left breast, he said, "Quiet, Lucretia; I am Sextus Tarquinius, and I have a sword in my hand. If you speak, you will die."

seduced both by her beauty and by her exemplary virtue

Lucretia, even though it was night, was still working on her spinning, with her servants, in the middle of her house. They were all impressed by Lucretia's chaste honor.

Young and vigorous as we are, why don't we go get out horses and go and see for ourselves what our wives are doing? And we will base our judgement on whatever we see them doing when their husbands arrive unannounced." Encouraged by the wine, "Yes, let's go!" they all cried, and they went on horseback to the city.

they fell to talking about their wives, and each man fell to praising his wife to excess

1. Marriages should not take place between plebeians and patricians.

Putting to death of any man, whosoever he might be unconvicted is forbidden.

Treason: he who shall have roused up a public enemy or handed over a citizen to a public enemy must suffer capital punishment.

. No person shall hold meetings by night in the city.

A person who had been found guilty of giving false witness shall be hurled down from the Tarpeian Rock.

It is unlawful for a thief to be killed by day....unless he defends himself with a weapon; even though he has come with a weapon, unless he shall use the weapon and fight back, you shall not kill him. And even if he resists, first call out so that someone may hear and come up.

If the theft has been done by night, if the owner kills the thief, the thief shall be held to be lawfully killed.

Any person who destroys by burning any building or heap of corn deposited alongside a house shall be bound, scourged, and put to death by burning at the stake provided that he has committed the said misdeed with malice aforethought; but if he shall have committed it by accident, that is, by negligence, it is ordained that he repair the damage or, if he be too poor to be competent for such punishment, he shall receive a lighter punishment.

If one shall permit himself to be summoned as a witness, or has been a weigher, if he does not give his testimony, let him be noted as dishonest and incapable of acting again as witness.

. If one is slain while committing theft by night, he is rightly slain.

. If one has maimed a limb and does not compromise with the injured person, let there be retaliation. If one has broken a bone of a freeman with his hand or with a cudgel, let him pay a penalty of three hundred coins If he has broken the bone of a slave, let him have one hundred and fifty coins. If one is guilty of insult, the penalty shall be twenty-five coins.

Should a tree on a neighbor's farm be bend crooked by the wind and lean over your farm, you may take legal action for removal of that tree.

Let them keep the road in order. If they have not paved it, a man may drive his team where he likes.

Any woman who does not wish to be subjected in this manner to the hand of her husband should be absent three nights in succession every year, and so interrupt the usucapio of each year.

When one makes a bond and a conveyance of property, as he has made formal declaration so let it be binding.

Females should remain in guardianship even when they have attained their majority.

A child born after ten months since the father's death will not be admitted into a legal inheritance.

If a father sell his son three times, the son shall be free from his father.

A dreadfully deformed child shall be quickly killed.

Against a foreigner the right in property shall be valid forever.

Unless he pays the amount of the judgment or some one in the presence of the magistrate interferes in his behalf as protector the creditor so shall take him home and fasten him in stocks or fetters. He shall fasten him with not less than fifteen pounds of weight or, if he choose, with more. If the prisoner choose, he may furnish his own food. If he does not, the creditor must give him a pound of meal daily; if he choose he may give him more.

One who has confessed a debt, or against whom judgment has been pronounced, shall have thirty days to pay it in. After that forcible seizure of his person is allowed

When the litigants settle their case by compromise, let the magistrate announce it. If they do not compromise, let them state each his own side of the case, in the comitium of the forum before noon. Afterwards let them talk it out together, while both are present. After noon, in case either party has failed to appear, let the magistrate pronounce judgment in favor of the one who is present. If both are present the trial may last until sunset but no later.

Let the protector of a landholder be a landholder; for one of the proletariat, let anyone that cares, be protector.

If illness or old age is the hindrance, let the summoner provide a team.

If the man summoned does not go, let the one summoning him call the bystanders to witness and then take him by force.

Where medicines will not cure incision must be made; if incisions fail, we must resort to cauterizing; but if that will not do we may judge the malady incurable.

The same meat administered to a person sick of a fever as to one in health will strengthen the healthy one

In what part of the body the sweat is there is the disease.

hanges of seasons are most effectual causes of diseases, and so are alterations of cold and heat within the seasons

It is dangerous much and suddenly either to empty, heat, fill, or cool, or by any other means to stir the body

Neither satiety nor hunger nor any other thing which exceeds the natural bounds can be good or healthful.

Sleeping or walking, if either be immoderate, is evil.

ought not to be moved or altered, either by purging or other irritating medicine, but should be let alone.

Those bodies that grow have much natural heat, therefore they require good store of food or else the body consumes, but old men have little heat in them, therefore they require but little food, for muchnourishment extinguishes that heat

Old men easily endure fasting, middle-aged men not so well, young men still less easily, and children worst of all

Neither is it sufficient that the physician do his office, unless the patient and his attendants do their duty and external conditions are well ordered.

twenty-four chariots drawn by four elephants each; the royal menagerie---twelve chariots drawn by antelopes, fifteen by buffaloes, eight by pairs of ostriches, eight by zebras; also many mules, camels, etc., and twenty-four lions.]

2239 talents and 50 minae [i.e., roughly $35 million in 1998 dollars--a prodigious sum for any coronation--ed.].

There were 57,600 infantry, and 23,200 cavalry.

Dionysus---ten cubits high

one hundred and eighty men.

imitate vine leaves and ivy leaves.

f ivy wood and gold, and clad in tunics embroidered with figures of animals, and they themselves also had a deal of gold ornament about them.

some clad in purple cloaks

Then came processions in honor of the several gods

Lucifer [the name given to the planet Venus] for the fˆte began at the time when that star first appears

animals carved in marble by the first artists, a full hundred in number; while in the spaces between the posts were hung pictures by the Sicyonian painters. And alternately with these were carefully selected images of every kind, and garments embroidered with gold and splendid cloaks, some having portraits of the kings of Egypt wrought upon them, and some stories from mythology. Above these were placed gold and silver shields alternately.

Egypt, thanks to its mild climate, and the fondness of its people for gardening, produces abundantly, and all the year round

were suspended strange hides of beasts, strange both for their variegated color, and their remarkable size.

one hundred and thirty couches

soldiers, artisans, and foreigners.

he celebrated his accession by a magnificent procession and festival at Alexandria.

Themistocles spread a rumor among the people that, by determining and judging all matters in private, he had destroyed the courts of justice, and was secretly making way for a monarchy in his own person, without the assistance of guards

Megakles the son of Hippokrates from Alopeke was ostracised.

the People had allowed the friends of the tyrants to continue to live in Athens with the exception of those who had committed crimes in the civil disorders;

Piesistratos had started as leader of the people and strategos, and became tyrant

not because he had been convicted of crime, but because he was something of a burden to upon the politeia, reproached for his arete rather than censured for an evil deed.

because of the weakness which came about in Athenian public affairs.

Alcibiades

favored men were ostracized: Aristeides, Kimon, Themistokles, Thucydides, Alcibiades. Ostracism

Hyperbolus was the sole undistinguished person to suffer ostracism, on account of the degeneracy of his habits, not because he was suspected of aiming at tyranny

he still received the income from his property

depart from the City for ten years (though it later was made five years

settle his private affairs within ten days

and it had to be not less than 6,000

deposited their potsherds, keeping face-down what they had written

The Demos takes a vote before the 8th Prytany, as to whether it seemed best to hold an ostracism

because he was a demagogue and as a general set up the tyranny.

Hippocrates that he was a syngenes of Peisistratus the Tyrant and was the first man to be ostracized

But whenever the poor of Athens make an agreement they can lay the blame on the individual speaker or the proposer, and say to the other party that it was not present and does not approve what they know was agreed upon in full assembly;

The poor of Athens protect the poor in the allied cities, realizing that it is to their own advantage always to protect the elite elements in the various cities.

As for the states allied to Athens, the Athenians enforce democracy in these states because they know that if the rich and the elite have control the rule of the poor back at Athens will be short-lived.

In Sparta my slave is afraid of you.

In a naval state slaves must serve for hire, that we may receive the fee for their labor, and we must let them go free

If it were legal for a slave or a foreigner or a freedman to be beaten by a free man, you would often have taken the Athenian for a slave, and struck him, for the poor there do not dress better than the slaves and the foreigners!

For it is the wish of the poor not that the state should be well-ordered and the poor themselves in complete subjection, but that the poor should have their freedom and be in control; disorderliness is of little consequence to it.

As it is, anyone who wants, a thief maybe, gets up and makes a speech, and devises what is to the advantage of himself and those like him.

ought not to have allowed everyone in turn to make speeches or sit on the Council, but only those of the highest capability and quality.

among the poor there is very great ignorance, disorderliness, and thievery;

Among the elite there is very little license and injustice

For if the poor and the common people and the worse elements are treated well, the growth of these classes will exalt the democracy;

They do not think that they ought to have a share through the lot in the supreme commands or in the cavalry commands, for the poor realize that they reap greater benefit by not having these offices in their own hands

it seems right that all should have a share in offices filled by lot or by election, and that any citizen who wishes should be allowed to speak

the poor which mans the fleet and has brought the state her power, and the steersmen and the boatswains and the shipmasters and the lookout-men and the shipwrights---these have brought the state her power much rather than the hoplites and the best-born and the elite.

As for the constitution of the Athenians, their choice of this type of constitution I do not approve

Athens the poor and the commons seem justly to have the advantage over the well-born and the wealthy

thieves should fare better than the elite

For the commander of the Athenian trireme, when he saw her bear down on one of the enemy's fleet, thought immediately that her vessel was a Hellene, or else had deserted from the Persians, and was now fighting on the Hellene side; he therefore gave up the chase, and turned away to attack others.

she bore straight against one of the ships of her own party, a Calyndian, which had Damasiyourmus, the Calyndian king, himself on board

Artemisia, however, I know, distinguished herself in such a way as raised her even higher than she stood before in the esteem of the king.

The Hellenes cannot hold out against you very long; you will soon part them asunder, and scatter them to their several homes. In the island where they lie, I hear they have no food in store; nor is it likely, if your land force begins its march towards the Peloponnesos, that they will remain quietly where they are---at least such as come from that region

On the other hand, if you are hasty to fight, I tremble lest the defeat of your sea force bring harm likewise to your land army. This, too, you should remember, O king; good masters are apt to have bad servants, and bad masters good ones. Now, as you are the best of men, your servants must needs be a sorry set. These Egyptians, Cyprians, Cilicians, and Pamphylians, who are counted in the number of your subject-allies, of how little service are they to you!"

Lygdamis; by race she was on his side a Halicarnassian, though by her mother a Cretan. She ruled over the Halicarnassians, the men of Cos, of Nisyrus, and of Calydna; and the five triremes which she furnished to the Persians were, next to the Sidonian, the most famous ships in the fleet. She likewise gave to Xerxes sounder counsel than any of his other allies. Now the cities over which I have mentioned that she bore sway were one and all Dorian; for the Halicarnassians were colonists from Troizen, while the remainder were from Epidauros.

leader named Artemisia, whose participation in the attack upon Hellas, notwithstanding that she was a woman, moves my special wonder

Thus much I can declare of the Persians with entire certainty, from my own actual knowledge. There is another custom which is spoken of with reserve, and not openly, concerning their dead. It is said that the body of a male Persian is never buried, until it has been torn either by a dog or a bird of prey. That the Magi have this custom is beyond a doubt, for they practice it without any concealment. The dead bodies are covered with wax, and then buried in the ground.

Until their fifth year they are not allowed to come into the sight of their father, but pass their lives with the women. This is done that, if the child die young, the father may not be afflicted by its loss.

Their sons are carefully instructed from their fifth to their twentieth year, in three things alone---to ride, to draw the bow, and to speak the truth

It is also their general practice to deliberate upon affairs of weight when they are drunk; and then on the morrow, when they are sober, the decision to which they came the night before is put before them by the master of the house in which it was made; and if it is then approved of, they act on it; if not, they set it aside.

Thus, they have taken the dress of the Medes, considering it superior to their own; and in war they wear the Egyptian breastplate. As soon as they hear of any luxury, they instantly make it their own: and hence, among other novelties, they have learnt unnatural lust from the Greeks.

the one which they celebrate most is their birthday

It is not lawful to offer sacrifice unless there is a Magus present

they raise no altar, light no fire, pour no libations; there is no sound of the flute, no putting on of chaplets, no consecrated barley-cake

which they borrowed from the Arabians and Assyrians

Zeus

These are the Pasargadae, the Maraphians, and the Maspians, of whom the Pasargadae are the noblest. The Achaemenidae, from which spring all the Perseid kings, is one of their clans. The rest of the Persian tribes are the following: the Panthialaeans, the Derusiaeans, the Germanians, who are engaged in husbandry; the Daans, the Mardians, the Dropicans, and the Sagartians, who are nomads.

Now the Persian nation is made up of many tribes