punishment and guilt,

If changing the air by flight cannot be undertaken because: (1) the epidemic is universal; (2) the fear that the plague victims would be neglected; or (3) the need to preserve the commonweal of the community

theoretical theological principles

For the Muslims, this incalculable event is fated by God for mankind, as are other diseases, droughts, or floods

ommon natural disaster.

In no case is there a direct causal relationship to be found between the Black Death (and subsequent plague epidemics) and the active persecution of minorities as in Europe.

toward minorities

For were there not comparable magical beliefs and practices, religious services and prayers?

corruption of the air

plague was inflicted on mankind

supernatural visions and events associated with the disease.

phenomena

Black Death are to be found in the plague treatises

Fasting and processions t

recommended prayers in common.

He and his friends would return home from the Friday prayer and the mass funerals, and they would take account of how many were present among them to compare with the number on the following Friday

worship

personal piety and ritual purity.

religious rites and services for the dead

mass funerals

they did not declare that plague was God’s punishment; they did not encourage flight; and they did not support a belief in the contagious nature of plague

religious ceremonies

f government and religion

flight from the cities as well;

Much the same may be said for the issue of flight from a plague-stricken community. Some jurists disagreed with the prohibition against fleeing, and there is historical evidence that clearly shows that there was flight from the countryside to the major cities. This might be explained by the attraction of food reserves in the cities (considering the long duration of the Black Death) and the opportunity to escape from the land and to obtain higher wages in the cities.

neutral event—which an unknowable God had decreed

There is an obvious incompatability between the beliefs in plague as a divine punishment and as a divine reward

punishment for the infidel

plague-stricken community,

plague was a mercy from God and a martyrdom for the faithful Muslim; (2) a Muslim should not enter nor flee from a plague-stricken land; and (3) there was no contagion of plague since disease came directly from God.

nconsistent with a vision of the biblical Apocalypse

danse macabre

something gruesome and morbid.

guilt and fear,

ewish persecution,

poisoning wells

the persecution of the Jews

punishment for their sinfulness

a conviction of personal guilt and a need for individual and collective expiation were engendered in the faithful Christian.

the extraordinary forms of communal behavior that took place in many parts of Europe during the Black Death.

European Christian viewed the Black Death as an overwhelming punishment from God

Italian cities and the widespread advocacy of flight as the best means of escaping the epidemic

pestilential miasma

identity of each culture

dissimilar

Hippocrates and elaborated by Galen and Ibn Sina (Avicenna)

isease was a pestilential miasma or corruption of the air

(bubonic, pneumonic, and septicaemic

spread throughout the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe

central Asia

The entire inhabited world changed

mansions became empty

good things of civilization and wiped them out

populations to vanish.

Ibn Khaldun

Franks did not need two weeks to prepare for a battle; they had, after all, defeated the relief army led by Ridwan of Aleppo in February 1098 with just a few days' warning.31

turn from sin to God and offer five alms because of the five wounds of the Lord' and that the discovery of the Lance should be commemorated on 21 June.

Peter Bartholomew received a new visitation from St Andrew and Christ during the night of 15-16 June,

does seem to have had a positive effect on the Frankish army's morale.

lord showed us his Lance and I

He then begged us to pray to God 10 return His Lance to the crusaders so as to bring strength and victory to His people

Peter Bartholomew

On 14 June 1098 southern French crusaders began searching for the Holy Lance in the Basilica of St Peter.

True Cross

oath, felt compelled to offer to undergo an ordeal to authenticate his story.

Stephen of Valence announced that he had experienced a vision in which Christ and the Virgin Mary scolded the crusaders for their sinful ways and ordered them to undergo five days of purificational purgation.

Peter may have asserted that he had been experiencing supernatural visitations since December 1097

low social status

doubts about Peter's visions.

the custody of his chaplain,

a

But, with the crusade on the edge of collapse, he had at last come forward

five separate visions ofSt Andrew the Apostle (accompanied by another figure, later revealed to be Christ)

Lance was the spear, wielded by the Roman soldier Longinus, that pierced Jesus' body at his crucifixion.

Holy Lance was buried in the Basilica of St Peter in Antioch.

30 December 1097,

Bishop Adhemar of Le Puy, the papal legate on the crusade, and Count Raymond of Toulouse, de facio leader of the southern French crusaders

probably required almost 400 work hours

important

Blue

boiling the material with various colour-yielding plants.

Women in the Viking AgeKey

useable.

The key symbolised the woman’s status as housewife.

key carriers?

There were chests, buckets, beds, a chair, a carriage and sledges. She was also given bedding filled with fine feathers and down. Other grave goods included oil lamps, together with a tapestry displaying numerous fine patterns and figures. The woman had also been given large quantities of ordinary household utensils to accompany her in the grave. These included cooking pots, frying pans, buckets and knives.   

great reputation and wealth

respect her

babies and small children generally went with their mothers

whilst men were able to bring various mistresses into the home.

if her husband settled in a new country whilst on his travels, but only if the man neglected to go to bed with her for three years. The aim of this was to secure the wife against a life of loneliness. The most typical grounds for divorce were, however, sudden poverty in the man’s family or violence on the part of the husband. If a man struck his wife three times she could demand a divorce.

marry again

When the Spanish-Arabic traveller al-Tartushi visited Hedeby in the 900s he was surprised to hear that women had the right to divorce if they wished.

If

watershed

reputation and place in society was connected to that of her husband

They could not appear in court or receive a share of the man’s inheritance.

independent and possessing rights

metalwork and carpentry

daily tasks

Pregnancy and breastfeeding also took up time in a woman’s life.

working wool, spinning yarn, sewing and weaving

farm was handed over to the woman

housekeeping on the farm

700 pounds of silver

Within the walls there was not ground in which to bury the dead

pestilence

he poured oil, wax, and pitch, which, being mixed and heated, burned the Danes and tore off their scalps. Some of them died; others threw themselves into the river to escape the awful substance. . . .

The warriors rushed together to defend the tottering tower and to repel the fierce assault.

foundations were still solid,

carrying off their dead

sword

The city resounded with clamor, the people were aroused, the bridges trembled. All came together to defend the tower

They shook it with their engines and stormed it with arrows.

morning

my head be cut off and thrown to the dogs

duty of defending these walls

Count Odo

Gauzelin, have compassion on yourself and on your flock. We beseech you to listen to us, in order that you may escape death. Allow us only the freedom of the city. We will do no harm and we will see to it that whatever belongs either to you or to Odo shall be strictly respected.

barques.

700 sailing ships

"Jupiter Dapalis, be honored by this feast that is offered to you and be honored by the wine that is placed before you."

"Jupiter Dapalis, since it is due and proper that a cup of wine be offered you, in my home among my family, for your sacred feast; for that reason, be honored by this feast that is offered you."

wine

me and my children, my house and my household."

pig

salutation

three gold pieces

pray

he should have such honor.

rule

trained in philosophy by Apollonius of Chalcedon: in the Greek language by Sextus of Chaeronea, the grandson of Plutarch, while the eminent orator Fronto instructed him in Latin literature. He conducted himself towards all men at Rome, as if he had been their equal, being moved by no arrogance by his elevation to the Empire. He exercised prompt liberality, and managed the provinceswith the utmost kindness and indulgence.

Marcus Aurelius

1,100,000 sesterces to be expended.

4,116 slaves, 3,600 yoke of oxen, and 257,000 head of other kinds of cattle, besides in ready money 60,000,000 sesterces

Isidorus

Pliny the Elder

general classes

sows' udder; boar's head; fish-pasties; boar-pasties; ducks; boiled teals; hares; roasted fowls; starch pastry; Pontic pastry.

sea hedgehogs; fresh oysters, as many as the guests wished; large mussels; sphondyli; field fares with asparagus; fattened fowls; oyster and mussel pasties; black and white sea acorns; sphondyli again; glycimarides; sea nettles; becaficoes; roe ribs; boar's ribs; fowls dressed with flour; becaficoes; purple shellfish of two sorts

music.

eating

the debate remains open

symbol:

she-wolf

.Again, the male is by nature superior, and the female inferior; and the one rules,

slave is himself an instrument which takes precedence of all other instruments.

pleasantly?

superior

escaped the most bitter part of life,

Socrates was so far advanced in age