wc

This connects the theory of justice with thetheory of rational choice

arc fair

docs no

justice as fairness”

Locke, Rousseau

the basic social institutions generally satisfy and arcgenerally known to satisfy these principles

everyone accepts and knows that theothers accept the same principles of justice,

acquiesce in an erroneous

Justice is the first virtue of social institutions, as truthis of systems of thought.

Mypreliminary analysis is meant to serve as a contrast towhat sex is not, at least, not necessarily

If so,we may characterize this desire, especially in keepingwith Freudian theory, as sexual or protosexual. I

pleasure isnormally a byproduct rather than a goal of purposefulactio

means-end analysis.” S

growing numbers of college students have become lessable to cope with the challenges of campus life, includ-ing offensive ideas, insensitive professors, and rude orevenracistandsexist peers.

Making the offline world “safer” by ban-ning the occasional stress-inducing speaker will nothelp.

becausetheymayincreasethenumberofoffensesperceivedwhileheighteningfeelingsofidentity-baseddivisionandvictimization.

collegesshoulddoalltheycantoequip studentstothriveinaworldfullofwordsandideasthattheycannotcontrol.

f students are repeatedly told that

Yiannopoulostospeakatyourschool.HeisPartofsomethingnoxious,acampaignofabuse.

When you're forced to engagea position you strongly disagree with, you learn some-as your own.

Chronic stress can cause physicaldamage.

f words cancause stress, and if prolonged stress can cause physicalharm, then it seems that speech—at least certain typesof speech—can be a form of violence.”

. IfMilo Yiannopoulos speaks on the University of Califor-nia, Berkeley, campus, is that an act of violence

When he does,people yell at him and tell him he’s in the wrong place.

On this view, it would be in principle impossible toknow someone’s gender without asking them.

It seems odd that society gets to decide what your gender is for you

“to be a woman is to beperceived as female and thereby to be subordinated.

Oppression.

No society,no gender

Does this seem morally problematic to you?

they’ll often make significantassumptions about what you should be like

Nor is biological sex is evenbinary; i.e., composed of only two clear, distinct categories, male and female!

cultural relativism

biological realist

ferret out

care

When she wants some-thing specific from him, she should compel him by being sexually alluring.

made women espe-cially for men’s delight

hey are becoming fewer and increasingly unpopular.

but their expertise lies in frugalityand maintaining what the husband acquires, not in acquiring it herself.

the household master over the slave,the husband over the wife, and the father over the children

Aristotle’s answer is that men are psychologicallydesigned to command, and women to obey.

Men and women differ psychologically from each other atleast somewhat, and it very well may be that those psychological differencesshape men’s and women’s respective moral capacities

interdependence, community, connection, sharing, emotion, body, trust,absence of hierarchy, nature, immanence, process, joy, peace, and life.

the whole tradition of ethical theory has been undermining women’s interests.

Pharaonic form, whichinvolves removal of the entire clitoris and the labia and stitchingtogether of the vulva, leaving just a small hole for elimination of urineand menstrual blood.

One hundred-thirty million women around the worldtoday have gone through this procedure,

gets thetrolley to threaten one instead of five include no more than getting the trolley off the straight track onto the right-hand track; and doing that is not itself an infringement of a right of anybody's.

But doing that is not itself an infringement of a right of anybody's.

As I shall put it, shoving a person, toppling a personoff a footbridge, are themselves infringements of rights of his.

all you have to do is to give him alittle shove, and over the railing he will go, onto the track in the path ofthe trolley.

ome people feel more discom­fort at the idea of turning the trolley in the loop variant than in the origi­nal Bystander at the Switch

Does that fact make it permissible for him to cut theyoung man up and distribute his parts to the five who need them?

. Indeed, if he doesnot get them the parts they need, so that they die, he will have killedthem

fortiori

By contrast, if the bystander does not throw the switch, he drives no trolley into anybody, and he kills nobody.

-it would be per­missible for you to take charge, take responsibility, and deflect the thing, whoever you may be

the bystander will do the five no harm at all if he does not throw the switch.

What difference in the other facts of these cases explains the moral differ­ence between them

No, it would not bemorally permissible for you to proceed.

ve track workmen, who have been repairing the trac

harmonize with it

ra.1io­nal nature exists as an end in itsel

if they are beings without reason, still have only a relative worth, as means, and are therefore called things,

et each be as happy as heaven wills or as he can make him­self; I shall take nothing from him nor even env y him

comfortable circumstances and prefers to give him­self up to pleasure than to trouble himself with enlargi..ng and improving his fortunate natural predispositions.

Now this principle of s e lf-love or personal advantage is perhaps quite consistent with my whole future welfare, but the question now is whether it is right.

thus that maxim could not possibly be a law of nature and, accordingly, altogether opposes t.he supreme principle of all duty.

act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law.

Th.is imperative may be called the imperative of morality . . .

hypothetically or categorically

o which every other motive must give way because it is the condition of a will good in itself, the worth of which sur­passes all else

do not, therefore, need any penetrating acuteness to see what I have to do in order that my volition be morally good.

To b e truthful from duty, however, is something entirely different from being truthful from anxiety about detrimental results,

insofar

Thus the moral worth of an action does not lie in the effect expected from it and s o too does not lie in any principle of action that needs to

wishes for death and yet preserves his life without loving it, not from inclination or fear but from duty,

e niggard

volition,

d happ iness, produce boldness and thereby often arrogance as we

Each of us has acompelling reas�n to obey morality, even when doing s o only fi-u.sttates our deepest desires

he good will is the steady commitment to do�ur duty for its own _sak

Mahometan law

We are continually informed that Utility is an uncertain standard

mpartiality, however, does not seem to be regarded as a duty in itself, but rather as instrumental to some other duty

ecause there is not time, on every occasion on which anything has to be done, to read through the Old and New Testaments.

enders men cold and unsympathising; that it chills their moral feelings towards individuals; that it makes them regard only the dry and hard consideration of the consequences of action

He who saves a fellow creature from drowning does what is morally right, whether his motive be duty, or the hope of being paid for his trouble

o do as you would be done by, and to love your neighbour as yourself, constitute the ideal perfection of utilitarian morality.

hadst thou even to be

heterogeneou

They pursue sensual indulgences to the injury of health, though perfectly aware that health is the greater good

It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.

A being of higher faculties requires more to make him happy, is capable probably of more acute suffering, and certainly accessible to it at more points, than one of an inferior type

almost all who have experience of both give a decided preference, irrespective of any feeling of moral obligation to prefer it, that is the more desirable pleasure

as a doctrine worthy only of swine

that pleasure, and freedom from pain, are the only things desirable as ends; and that all desirable things (which are as numerous in the utilitarian as in any other scheme) are desirable either for the pleasure inherent in themselves, or as means to the promotion of pleasure and the prevention of pain.

Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness

themselves called upon to resume it, ifby doing so they can hope to contribute anything towards rescuing it from this utter degradation.

another of the common charges against utilitarianism

the correct ethic of the wrong- ness of killing can be extended to fetal life and used to show that there is a strong presumption that any abortion is morally impermis- sible

An embryo cannot be a victim, he says, because it lacks sentience

A fetus's future can be valuable to it in the same wa

esire account.

discontinuation account.

animals are no more persons than crab- grass or stone

for the structure of the two arguments is the sam

Since causing suffering is what makes the wanton infliction of pain wrong and since the wanton infliction of pain on animals causes suffering, it follows that the wanton infliction of pain on animals is wrong.

Clearly, in this case, the category of person is being used to state the conclusion of the analysis rather than to generate the argument of the analysis.

The future of a standard fetus includes a set of experiences, projects, activities, and such which are identical with the futures of adult human being

ad ho

prima facie

e have both a symmetry and a standoff between pro-choice and anti- abortion views.

Karen Ann Quinlan

The problem with narrow principles is that they often do not embrace enough.

it is wrong to end the existence of a living human cancer- cell culture, on the grounds that the culture is both living and human

The problem with broad principles is that they often embrace too much

prima facie

the truth of any of these claims is quite obvious, and (2) establishing any of these claims is sufficient to show that an abortion is not a wrongful killing.

anti-abortionist

abortion before implantation

bortion is, except possibly in rare cases, seri- ously immoral, that it is in the same moral category as killing an innocent adult human being.

. A very early abortion is surely not the killing of a person, and so is not dealt with by anything I have said here

abortion, and indecent in a doctor to perform it, if she is in her seventh month, and wants the abortion just to avoid the nuisance of postpon- ing a trip abroad

a sick and desperately frightened fourteen-year-old schoolgirl, pregnant due to rape, may of course choose abortion, and that any law which rules this out is an insane law

but it is worth drawing attention to the fact that in no state in this country is any man compelled by law to be even a Minimally Decent Samaritan to any perso

If the boy refuses to give his brother any, he is greedy, stingy, callous-but not unjust.

she ought to allow it to remain for that hour-that it would be indecent in her to refuse

. If the room is stuffy, and I therefore open a window to air it, and a burglar climbs in, it would be absurd to say,"Ah, now he can stay, she's given him a right to the use of her hous

. For if you do not kill him unjustly, you do not violate his right to life, and so it is no wonder you do him no injustice.

but you do not act unjustly to him in doing it.

That is, while he had no right against us that we should give him the use of your kidneys, it might be argued that he anyway has a right against us that we shall not now intervene and deprive him of the use of your kidneys.

If I am sick unto death, and the only thing that will save my life is the touch of Henry Fonda's cool hand on my fevered brow, then all the same, I have no right to be given the touch of Henry Fonda's cool hand on my fevered bro

My own view is that if a human being has any just, prior claim to anything at all, he has a just, prior claim to his own body

Of course it's your coat, anybody would grant that it is. But no one may choose between you and Jones who is to have it

Women have said again and again "This body is my body!" and they have reason to feel angry, reason to feel that it has been like shouting into the wind

I think you have not the right, even to save your life, to do so

However innocent the child may be, you do not have to wait pas- sively while it crushes you to death

there isn't much a woman can safely do to abort herself.

the very fact that an innocent person has a right to life.

Suppose a woman has become preg- nant, and now learns that she has a cardiac condition such that she will die if she carries the baby to term.

But these state- ments have a rather unpleasant sound

" Is it morally incumbent on you to accede to this situation?

So the fetus may not be killed; an abortion may not be performed

the premise that the fetus is not a person, but only a bit of tissue that will become a person at birth

and hardly any time explaining the step from there to the impermissibility of abortio

2 On the other hand, I think that the prem- ise is false, that the fetus is not a person from the moment of con- ception

we shall probably have to agree that the fetus has already become a human person well before birth.

is con- cluded that the fetus is, or anyway that we had better say it is, a per- son from the moment of conception. But this conclusion does not fol- low

but sometimes we praise those who get angry and call them manly_

but to do this to the right person, to the right extent, at the right time, with the right motive, and in the right way, thta is not for every one, nor is it easy; wherefore goodness is both rare and laudable and noble

That moral virtue is a mean, then, and in what sense it is so, and that it is a mean between two vices, the one involving excess, the other deficiency

ence also the people at the extremes push the inter­mediate man each over'to the other, and the brave man is called ' rash by the coward, cowardly by die rash man, and correspond­ingly in the other cases.

viz.

, the man who falls sliort unambitious, while the inter­mediat� person has no nam�

Persons de:licient with regard to the pleasures are not often found; hence such persons also have received no nam·e.But let us call them "insensible."

is neither a mean of excess and deficiency; nor excess a,nd defi­ciency of a mean.

Fo r men are go od ID but one way; but bad in many.

virtues are neither passions nor.faculties, all that remains is that they should be states af charaaer.

Thus a master of any art avoids excess and defe� but seeks the intermediate and chooses this-the intermediate not in the objeet but relatively to us.

faculties

but for our virtues and our vices we are praised or blamed.

things that are found in the soul are of three kinds-passions, faculties, states of character;

It is well smd, then, that it is by doing just acts that the just man is pro­duced, and by doing temperate acts the temperate man

or the man who uses these well will be good, he who uses them badly bad.

There being three objectsof choice and three of avoidance, the noble, the advantageous, the pleasant, and their contraries, the base, the injurious, the painful,

it is on account ·of the pleasure that we do bad things, and on account of the pain that we abstain from noble ones.

hat it is the namre of such tbmgs to be destroyed by defect and excess,

For the man who flies from and fears everything and does not s--..a nd his ground against anything becomes a cow­ard, and the man who fears nothing at all but · goes to meet every danger becomes rash; and similarly the man who indulges in every pleasure and abstains from none becomes self­indulgent, while the man who shuns every pleasw;-e, as boors do

just or unjust,

causes and by the same mean

ethike

or besides the reasons already given, someone �who does not enj oy fine actions is not good; for no one would call a person just, for :instance, if he did not enj oy doing just actions, or generous if he did not enj oy generous actions, and similarly for the other virtues

he life 1098a next ID order is some sort of life of sense perception; but this too is appar-ently shared with horse, ox, and every arrimal.*

Happmes.s, by con­trast, no one ever chooses for their sake, or for the sake of i31iythmg else at all

3 Since there are apparently many ends, and we choose some of the

For it seems possible for someone to possess virtue 1096a but be asleep or mactive throughout his life

Sardanapallu

for there are roughly three most favored lives: the lives of gratification, of political activity, and, third, of study.*

'He who grasps everything himself is best of all; he is noble also who listens to one who has spoke,_, well; but he who neither grasps it himself nor takes to heart what he hears from another is a useless man.'

ndeed, the same person often changes his mind; for when he has fallen ill, he thinks happmess is healt..li., and when he has fallen into pov­erty, he thinks it :is wealth

This is why a youth is not a suitable student of political scienc;e; for he lacks experience of the actions rn. life

rhetorician

or some have been destroyed because of their wealth, others because of their 20 bravery.

And this appears characteristic of political science. §6 For it is the one that prescn"bes which of the sciences ou,g.ht to be stud-1094b ied in cities, and which ones each class in the city should learn, and how far; indeed we see that even the most honored capacities-ge...11.eralship, housei'lold management, and rhetoric, for instance-are subordinate to5 it.

bridle making and every other scie..n.ce producing equipment for horses are subordinate to horsemanship

that slaves take of their masters

o not wish to name Zeus, who had done it, and who made all things grow, for where there is fear there is also shame. 12

Come, try to show me a clear sign that all the gods definitely believe this action to be right

The sal1\le things then are loved by the gods and hated by the gods, and would be both god-loved and god-hated.

Well

by Zeus

For, they say, it is impious for a son to prosecute e his father for murder. But their ideas of the divine attitude to piety and impiety are wrong,

en. If then they were intending to laugh e at me, as you say they laugh at you, there would be nothing unpleasant in their spending their time in court laughing and jesting, but if they are going to be serious, the outcome is nbt clear except to you prophets.

he says that I am b a maker of gods, and on the ground that I creat

deme

eans, in the first instance, the knowledge of the proper ritual in prayer and sacrifice and of course its performance

search for universal definitions of ethical terms, to which a number of early

What would not a man give, O judges, to be able to ex- amine the leader of the great Trojan expedition; or Odysseus or Sisyphus, or numberless others, men and women too!