Many, if not most, HPE studies are primarily focused not on testing general causal theories, but on tracing historical roots or origins of things. Implicit in such studies is a view that an explanation of a phenomenon amounts to a reconstruction of its concrete historical pathway

selection on observables.

A, and if (ii) cases A and B have similar factors XA and XB with causal capacities under m, then (iii) m can be inferred to operate in case B. Thus, one can make credible causal statements in case B without a direct empirical study of that case, on the basis of credible identification in case A

Five Dimensions of Immigration PolicyWhen it comes to managing and shaping migration flows, as opposed to simply controlling their entry, it is possible to identify five principal constituent elements of this field: labor migration, the increased importance of political asylum, the growth of immigration of dependents, ethnic immigration, and issues related to the integration of immigrants into the host country

By contrast, annotations can link an argument advanced in the main text of a publication to an excerpt from the source(s) the author is positing supports the arguments

Analytic Transparency

hift of tone came about almost overnight, from doubt about whether ordinary Americans had really suffered from economic and political globalization in the last generation to regret that their certain suffering had caused them to cast such a desperate vote

central importance.

Universities should also officially and strongly discourage trigger warnings. They should endorse the American Association of University Professors’ report on these warnings, which notes, “The presumption that students need to be protected rather than challenged in a classroom is at once infantilizing and anti-intellectual.” P