The subject-aux inversion can also happen in a when using negation or to express surprise or shock about a situation or a fact. There are expressions when placed at the beginning of a sentence that require the subject-aux inversion (Brinton & Brinton 233). Expressions that begin with a negative like:

The second kind of movement this chapter will cover occurs with the other major category of questions in English, i.e., content questions. Unlike yes-no questions, this kind of question requests a more detailed answer, and begins with one of the classic ‘question words’–most of which begin with WH. These are who, whose, what, which, where, why, when, and (the odd one out, in terms of spelling) how. We can analyze WH-questions in the same way as yes-no questions, by recourse to deep structure. The basic mechanism of WH-movement is that regardless of its normal place in the clause, a WH-word which is being questioned must move to the front of the clause. In cases where the subject is the question word, like “Who did this?”, this is trivial–the subject is already at the front of the sentence, so it makes no difference if the WH-word moves to the front.

Non-finite clauses are subordinate clauses which contain secondary (‘non-finite’) verb forms, including participles, gerunds, and infinitives (Huddleston & Pullum 205). Non-finite clauses are often used when the subject is the same as the subject in the main clause. In addition, sometimes non-finite clauses have no subject when they function as adjuncts, which can make them hard to understand. With respect to the discussion of the terms ‘independent’ and ‘dependent’ clauses earlier, non-finite clauses are truly dependent, as they do not carry tense and thus cannot function as main clauses, even when taken out of their clausal context. Non-finite verbs o not indicate tense because “the verb or auxiliary carrying tense is called finite, all other forms (nontensed) are called non-finite (not restricted in terms of tense, person, and number)” (Brinton & Brinton 225).

To review, main clauses (CL), sometimes called independent clauses, are generally the same thing we think of when we think of a ‘complete sentence’–that is, a sentence with a noun phrase (NP) or occasionally a subordinate clause (SC) functioning as the subject followed by a verb phrase (VP) functioning as the predicate. A common definition of these is a clause that ‘expresses a complete thought’–however, we should know by now to be wary of vague definitions like this. Checking for a subject and a predicate (plus a finite verb, which we’ll discuss later) is a better way to ensure that we have a main clause.

Prepositional phrases have a variety of functions. They can modify a noun, as in “the child with a runny nose,” or verbs, as in “she came from Panama.” When PPs modify verbs, they have functions that can often be filled by adverb phrases, or occasionally by other phrase types as well. Constituents that function in this role are sometimes called adverbials, because these constituents answer adverb-like questions such as when, where, how, or why. Similarly, PPs that modify nouns are sometimes called adjectivals. But be careful with these terms. They do not imply that the PPs actually become adverbs or adjectives. Remember that adjective and adverb are categories for words, not for phrases. The terms adverbial and adjectival simply tell you what sort of constituent the phrase modifies. Because this information can also be conveyed by a tree diagram, we won’t use these particular terms much, but you should be aware of them, since other works on English grammar use them frequently. We will have more to say about the various roles that PPs fill after we have finished our survey of phrase types.

Prepositional phrases have a variety of functions. They can modify a noun, as in “the child with a runny nose,” or verbs, as in “she came from Panama.” When PPs modify verbs, they have functions that can often be filled by adverb phrases, or occasionally by other phrase types as well. Constituents that function in this role are sometimes called adverbials, because these constituents answer adverb-like questions such as when, where, how, or why. Similarly, PPs that modify nouns are sometimes called adjectivals. But be careful with these terms. They do not imply that the PPs actually become adverbs or adjectives. Remember that adjective and adverb are categories for words, not for phrases. The terms adverbial and adjectival simply tell you what sort of constituent the phrase modifies. Because this information can also be conveyed by a tree diagram, we won’t use these particular terms much, but you should be aware of them, since other works on English grammar use them frequently. We will have more to say about the various roles that PPs fill after we have finished our survey of phrase types.

If we’re going to call these determiners too, then we are saying that entire phrases can be described as a word category, making a mess of our descriptive system. The solution to this puzzle is to recognize that the contrast between (7) and (7a) is one of two different forms, a determiner on the one hand and a genitive noun on the other, that share a common function. We will call this function the determinative.[1] In its most basic semantic role, a determinative indicates the definiteness of a noun phrase. That is, it tells us whether the NP has a specific referent or not.

If we’re going to call these determiners too, then we are saying that entire phrases can be described as a word category, making a mess of our descriptive system. The solution to this puzzle is to recognize that the contrast between (7) and (7a) is one of two different forms, a determiner on the one hand and a genitive noun on the other, that share a common function. We will call this function the determinative.[1] In its most basic semantic role, a determinative indicates the definiteness of a noun phrase. That is, it tells us whether the NP has a specific referent or not.

Many grammar books label these prepositional phrases indirect objects, but technically they are not. The prepositional phrases here play the same semantic role as the equivalent indirect objects, a role known as the recipient, but remember that semantic roles differ from grammatical roles. Recipient is a semantic role, indirect object is a grammatical role.[1] A verb can only be VD if it is followed by two noun phrases. If it is followed by only one NP, it is an ordinary monotransitive (VT) verb.

Many grammar books label these prepositional phrases indirect objects, but technically they are not. The prepositional phrases here play the same semantic role as the equivalent indirect objects, a role known as the recipient, but remember that semantic roles differ from grammatical roles. Recipient is a semantic role, indirect object is a grammatical role.[1] A verb can only be VD if it is followed by two noun phrases. If it is followed by only one NP, it is an ordinary monotransitive (VT) verb.

A clause is a constituent consisting of two parts: a subject and a predicate. The concepts of subject and predicate are probably already familiar to you from your earlier schooling. In terms of meaning, we can say that the subject is the part of the clause about which something is asserted, and the predicate makes that assertion. These definitions are vague, and eventually we will need to be more precise. We will describe a clause in terms of structure once we’re better able to describe how that structure works.

When we analyze a sentence, we take it apart to determine what function each unit in the sentence has. This process is known as parsing a sentence. You can probably do some basic parsing already, even if you have never heard of the term. For example, if you can identify the subject of a sentence, you have analyzed the sentence and identified the role of one important item in it. Congratulations, you have just parsed a sentence, although not completely.

This conclusion differs dramatically from what is typically taught in schoolbook grammars, but it is not new-fangled linguistics. The two-tense nature of English, and of other Germanic languages,[3] was first recognized in the early nineteenth century, and is currently the standard account in the reference works used by professional linguists. That so many books used in primary and secondary education still cling to an outdated description is scandalous but unfortunately typical of the disconnect between the authors of such books and linguistic scholarship.

These examples illustrate that tense does not always equate simply with time. When we use the term tense, we are referring to a grammatical form. Time, however, is a semantic concept that can be expressed in ways other than a grammatical marking of the verb.

These definitions cover what we might call prototypical cases. Nouns often do label objects in the real world (car, tree, apple, etc.) and verbs most commonly express action (run, play, eat, etc.). But what do we do with abstract nouns like love or destruction? One easy way out is to add “idea” to the definition, but this change comes at a severe cost, for “idea” can be taken to encompass just about everything. Consider sentences such as

Adjective (Adj) – Adjectives describe (or more precisely, modify) nouns. Adjectives usually appear in the noun phrase before a noun and after any determiners. (the hungry dog, five tired students) but can also appear in the predicate after a linking verb (the dog is hungry, five students seem tired.) Adjectives often have comparative and superlative forms (better, best, colder, coldest). Adjectives do not describe anything that isn’t a noun—if a word is describing a verb, another adjective, or an adverb, it’s an adverb instead. Examples of adjectives: cool, fun, angry, uglier, nicest, complicated, sensible, first, unbelievable, ridiculous, running (in it’s a running gag) Adverb (Adv) – Adverbs are parallel to adjectives, but they modify (and describe) things that aren’t nouns, from verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, all the way up to entire sentences. Adverbs are kind of the ‘catch-all’ of the parts of speech, and it’s pretty much impossible to give a concise and complete definition of what an adverb is, because different adverbs have different properties. Some are made from adjectives + ly but not all -ly endings are adverbs (lovely and ugly are adjectives, not adverbs). Adverbs generally answer some questions about the things they modify, like ‘how’, ‘when’, and ‘to what extent.’ Adverbs are the only things that can go between auxiliary and main verbs, and if something can move around a lot in the sentence without changing the meaning (especially to the front and back of the sentence) then it’s probably an adverb. Examples of adverbs: yesterday (in we went to the store yesterday) very (in very good) often (in we go to school often), not (in I’m not sorry), just, quickly, and many more.

Morphology is a branch of linguistics that deals with the structure and form of the words in a language (Hamawand 2). In grammar, morphology differs from syntax, though both are concerned with structure. Syntax is the field that studies the structure of sentences, which are composed of words, while morphology is the field that studies the structure of the words themselves (Julien 8). Unlike phonology, covered earlier, morphology is more directly related to syntax, and will see some coverage in this textbook.

This chapter has two purposes: first, to give you an overview of the major structural components of language; second, to introduce some basic concepts from areas other than syntax that we will need to make sense of syntax itself. We can think of language both in terms of a message and a medium by which that message is transmitted. These two aspects are partly independent of one another. For example, the same message can be conveyed through speech or through writing. Sound is one medium for transmitting language; writing is another. A third medium, although not one that occurs to most people immediately, is gesture, in other words, sign language. The message is only partly independent of the medium because while it is certainly possible to express the same message through different media, the medium has a tendency to shape the message by virtue of its peculiarities. When we look at the content of the message, we find it consists of a variety of building blocks. Sounds (or letters) combine to make word parts, which combine to make words, which combine to make sentences, which combine to make a discourse. Indeed, language is often said to be a combinatorial system, where a small number of basic building blocks combine and recombine in different patterns. A small number of blocks can account for a very large variety indeed. DNA, another combinatorial system, uses only four basic blocks, and combinations of thes

Language serves as a symbol of group identity. With the words we use and the way we pronounce them, we send signals to others—conscious and unconscious—about where we come from and how we see ourselves. Children, and adults for that matter, will adopt slang terms to show that they are hip, part of the in crowd. Some people view English as the unifying force of America. According to this perspective, the major thread holding a diverse society together is language. Those who stress this point emphasize the need for immigrants to master English, and sometimes insist that English should be the only language used in public life in the United States.

This textbook introduces a set of fundamental concepts that are necessary for a solid understanding of English grammar. Unlike many books, it doesn’t just tell you how things are (or, worse, should be) in English.