But if the body is a machine, one problem immediately emerges: how to make itwork?Two different models ofbody-governm ent derive from the theories o f MechanicalPhilosophy. O n one side, we have the Cartesian m odel that, starting from the assumption o f a purely mechanical body, postulates the possibility o f developing in the individual mechanisms o f self-discipline, self-management, and self-regulation allowing forvoluntary work-relations and government based on consent. O n the other side, there isthe Hobbesian m odel that, denying the possibility o f a body-free Reason, externalizesthe functions o f command, consigning them to the absolute authority o f the state.

M arx’s terms, this is an “abstract individual,” constructed in a uniform way, as a socialaverage, and subject to a radical dechaiacterization, so that all o f its faculties can begrasped only in their most standardized aspects. T he construction o f this new individual was the basis for the development o f w hat W illiam Petty would later call (usingHobbes’ terminology) PoliticalArithmetics— a new science that was to study every formo f social behavior in terms o f Numbers, mights, and Measures. Petty’s project was realized w ith the development o f statistics and demography (Wilson 1966; Cullen 1975)w hich perform o n the social body the same operations that anatomy performs on theindividual body, as they dissect the population and study its movements — from natality to mortality rates, from generational to occupational structures— in their m ost mas-sified and regular aspects. Also from the poin t o f view o f the abstraction process that theindividual underw ent in the transition to capitalism, we can see that the developmento f the “hum an m achine” was the main technological leap, the main step in the developm ent o f the productive forces that took place in the period o f primitive accumulation. We can see, in other words, that the human body and not the steam engine, and not eventhe clock, was thefirst machine developed by capitalism.

This state of mind preyed upon my health, which had entirelyrecovered from the first shock it had sustained.

Even more horrible is the Monster’s own self-deprecation in his final words to Walton: “You hate me; but yourabhorrence cannot equal that with which I regard myself.”Frankenstein, ultimately, is a novel about self-loathing; and theMonster’s final exit in “darkness and distance” predicts “The horror!The horror!” of Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, anotherdoppelgänger frame tale published at the end of the nineteenthcentury.

Isuggest that we are best served by reading the novel in two ways: as aconflation of the three basic Western myths about the dangerousconsequences of the pursuit of knowledge, and as a doppelgängernovel that stresses the interconnections among the characters. Bothof these “readings” may be extended to the many film adaptations ofthe novel

But it is even so; the fallen angel becomes a malignantdevil. Yet even that enemy of God and man had friends andassociates in his desolation; I am quite alone.

Yourrepentance,” I said, “is now superfluous. If you had listened to thevoice of conscience, and heeded the stings of remorse, before you hadurged your diabolical vengeance to this extremity, Frankensteinwould yet have lived.”

“That is also my victim!” he exclaimed; “in his murder my crimesare consummated; the miserable series of my being is wound to itsclose! Oh, Frankenstein! generous and self-devoted being! what doesit avail that I now ask thee to pardon me?

Seek happiness in tranquillity, and avoidambition, even if it be only the apparently innocent one ofdistinguishing yourself in science and discoveries. Yet why do I saythis? I have myself been blasted in these hopes, yet another maysucceed.”

In a fit of enthusiasticmadness I created a rational creature, and was bound towards him,to assure, as far as was in my power, his happiness and well-being.This was my duty; but there was another still paramount to that. Myduties towards my fellow-creatures had greater claims to myattention, because they included a greater proportion of happiness ormisery. Urged by this view, I refused, and I did right in refusing, tocreate a companion for the first creature. He shewed unparalleledmalignity and selfishness, in evil: he destroyed my friends; hedevoted to destruction beings who possessed exquisite sensations,happiness, and wisdom; nor do I know where this thirst forvengeance may end. Miserable himself, that he may render no otherwretched, he ought to die. The task of his destruction was mine, but Ihave failed. When actuated by selfish and vicious motives, I askedyou to undertake my unfinished work; and I renew this request now,when I am only induced by reason and virtue.

but I feel myself justified in desiring the death of myadversary.

The die is cast; I have consented to return, if we are not destroyed.Thus are my hopes blasted by cowardice and indecision; I come backignorant and disappointed. It requires more philosophy than Ipossess, to bear this injustice with patience.

Yet I fear such will bemy fate; the men, unsupported by ideas of glory and honour, cannever willingly continue to endure their present hardships.

He is eloquent and persuasive; and once his words had even powerover my heart: but trust him not. His soul is as hellish as his form,full of treachery and fiend-like malice. Hear him not; call on thenanes of William, Justine, Clerval, Elizabeth, my father, and of thewretched Victor, and thrust your sword into his heart. I will hovernear, and direct the steel aright.

“My reign isnot yet over,” (these words were legible in one of these inscriptions);“you live, and my power is complete. Follow me; I seek theeverlasting ices of the north, where you will feel the misery of coldand frost, to which I am impassive. You will find near this place, ifyou follow not too tardily, a dead hare; eat, and be refreshed. Comeon, my enemy; we have yet to wrestle for our lives; but many hardand miserable hours must you endure, until that period shall arrive.”

who feared that if I lost all trace I should despair and die,often left some mark to guide me.

“I am satisfied:miserable wretch! you have determined to live, and I am satisfied.”

Let the cursed and hellish monster drink deep of agony; lethim feel the despair that now torments me.”

They were dead, and I lived; their murdereralso lived, and to destroy him I must drag out my weary existence.

But revenge kept me alive; I dared not die, and leave myadversary in being.

But why should I dwell upon the incidents that followed this lastoverwhelming event. Mine has been a tale of horrors; I have reachedtheir acme, and what I must now relate can but be tedious to you.Know that, one by one, my friends were snatched away; I was leftdesolate. My own strength is exhausted; and I must tell, in a fewwords, what remains of my hideous narration.

Great God! why did I not then expire! Why am I here to relate thedestruction of the best hope, and the purest creature of earth. Shewas there, lifeless and inanimate, thrown across the bed, her headhanging down, and her pale and distorted features half covered byher hair. Every where I turn I see the same figure—her bloodlessarms and relaxed form flung by the murderer on its bridal bier.Could I behold this, and live? Alas! life is obstinate, and clings closestwhere it is most hated. For a moment only did I lose recollection; Ifainted.

As the period fixed for our marriage drew nearer, whether fromcowardice or a prophetic feeling, I felt my heart sink within me. But Iconcealed my feelings by an appearance of hilarity, that broughtsmiles and joy to the countenance of my father, but hardly deceivedthe ever-watchful and nicer eye of Elizabeth. She looked forward toour union with placid contentment, not unmingled with a little fear,which past misfortunes had impressed, that what now appearedcertain and tangible happiness, might soon dissipate into an airydream, and leave no trace but deep and everlasting regret.

“My dear Victor, do not speak thus. Heavy misfortunes havebefallen us; but let us only cling closer to what remains, and transferour love for those whom we have lost to those who yet live. Our circlewill be small, but bound close by the ties of affection and mutualmisfortune. And when time shall have softened your despair, newand dear objects of care will be born to replace those of whom wehave been so cruelly deprived.”

Ah! it is well for theunfortunate to be resigned, but for the guilty there is no peace. Theagonies of remorse poison the luxury there is otherwise sometimesfound in indulging the excess of grief.

The tranquillity which I now enjoyed did not endure. Memorybrought madness with it; and when I thought on what had passed, areal insanity possessed me; sometimes I was furious, and burnt withrage, sometimes low and despondent. I neither spoke or looked, butsat motionless, bewildered by the multitude of miseries thatovercame me

A thousand times would I have shed my own blood,drop by drop, to have saved their lives; but I could not, my father,indeed I could not sacrifice the whole human race.”

. Humanbeings, their feelings and passions, would indeed be degraded, ifsuch a wretch as I felt pride

“Alas! my father,” said I, “how little do you know me. Humanbeings, their feelings and passions, would indeed be degraded, ifsuch a wretch as I felt pride. Justine, poor unhappy Justine, was asinnocent as I, and she suffered the same charge; she died for it; and Iam the cause of this—I murdered her. William, Justine, and Henry—they all died by my hands.”

As for my father, his desires and exertions were bounded to theagain seeing me restored to health and peace of mind. Histenderness and attentions were unremitting; my grief and gloom wasobstinate, but he would not despair. Sometimes he thought that I feltdeeply the degradation of being obliged to answer a charge ofmurder, and he endeavoured to prove to me the futility of pride.

But sleep did not afford me respite from thought and misery; mydreams presented a thousand objects that scared me. Towardsmorning I was possessed by a kind of night-mare; I felt the fiend’sgrasp in my neck, and could not free myself from it; groans and criesrung in my ears.

“He may be innocent of the murder, but he has certainly a badconscience.” These words struck me. A bad conscience! yes, surely Ihad one. William, Justine, and Clerval, had died through my infernalmachinations; “

I am sorry that I amstill alive to feel this misery and horror.”

The trial, the presence of the magistrateand witnesses, passed like a dream from my memory, when I saw thelifeless form of Henry Clerval stretched before me.

Nothing could be more complete than the alteration that had takenplace in my feelings since the night of the appearance of the daemon.I had before regarded my promise with a gloomy despair, as a thingthat, with whatever consequences, must be fulfilled; but I now felt asif a film had been taken from before my eyes, and that I, for the firsttime, saw clearly. The idea of renewing my labours did not for oneinstant occur to me; the threat I had heard weighed on my thoughts,but I did not reflect that a voluntary act of mine could avert it. I hadresolved in my own mind, that to create another like the fiend I hadfirst made would be an act of the basest and most atrociousselfishness; and I banished from my mind every thought that couldlead to a different conclusion.

If I returned, it was to be sacrificed, or to see thosewhom I most loved die under the grasp of a daemon whom I hadmyself created.

“The hour of my weakness is past, and the period of your power isarrived. Your threats cannot move me to do an act of wickedness; butthey confirm me in a resolution of not creating you a companion invice. Shall I, in cool blood, set loose upon the earth a daemon, whosedelight is in death and wretchedness. Begone! I am firm, and yourwords will only exasperate my rage.”

I thought with a sensation of madness onmy promise of creating another like to him, and, trembling withpassion, tore to pieces the thing on which I was engaged.

Had I aright, for my own benefit, to inflict this curse upon everlastinggenerations?

I shuddered to think that future ages might curse me as their pest,whose selfishness had not hesitated to buy its own peace at the priceperhaps of the existence of the whole human race.

I wasalike ignorant; she might become ten thousand times moremalignant than her mate, and delight, for its own sake, in murderand wretchedness.

She also mightturn with disgust from him to the superior beauty of man; she mightquit him, and he be again alone, exasperated by the freshprovocation of being deserted by one of his own species

Three years before I was engaged in the samemanner, and had created a fiend whose unparalleled barbarity haddesolated my heart, and filled it for ever with the bitterest remorse.

In the mean time I worked on, and my labour was alreadyconsiderably advanced. I looked towards its completion with atremulous and eager hope, which I dared not trust myself toquestion, but which was intermixed with obscure forebodings of evil,that made my heart sicken in my bosom.

During my first experiment, a kind ofenthusiastic frenzy had blinded me to the horror of my employment;my mind was intently fixed on the sequel of my labour, and my eyeswere shut to the horror of my proceedings. But now I went to it incold blood, and my heart often sickened at the work of my hands

Sometimes I thought that the fiend followed me,and might expedite my remissness by murdering my companion.When these thoughts possessed me, I would not quit Henry for amoment, but followed him as his shadow, to protect him from thefancied rage of his destroyer. I felt as if I had committed some greatcrime, the consciousness of which haunted me. I was guiltless, but Ihad indeed drawn down a horrible curse upon my head, as mortal asthat of crime.

but the iron had eaten into my flesh, and I sankagain, trembling and hopeless, into my miserable self.

I enjoyed this scene; and yet my enjoyment was embittered bothby the memory of the past, and the anticipation of the future. I wasformed for peaceful happiness. During my youthful days discontentnever visited my mind; and if I was ever overcome by ennui, the sightof what is beautiful in nature, or the study of what is excellent andsublime in the productions of man, could always interest my heart,and communicate elasticity to my spirits. But I am a blasted tree; thebolt has entered my soul; and I felt then that I should survive toexhibit, what I shall soon cease to be—a miserable spectacle ofwrecked humanity, pitiable to others, and abhorrent to myself.

Every thought that was devoted to it was an extreme anguish, andevery word that I spoke in allusion to it caused my lips to quiver, andmy heart to palpitate.

now also began to collectthe materials necessary for my new creation, and this was to me likethe torture of single drops of water continually falling on the head.

I was principallyoccupied with the means of obtaining the information necessary forthe completion of my promise, and quickly availed myself of theletters of introduction that I had brought with me, addressed to themost distinguished natural philosophers.

And where does he now exist? Is this gentle and lovely being lostfor ever? Has this mind so replete with ideas, imaginations fancifuland magnificent, which formed a world, whose existence dependedon the life of its creator; has this mind perished? Does it now onlyexist in my memory? No, it is not thus; your form so divinelywrought, and beaming with beauty, has decayed, but your spirit stillvisits and consoles your unhappy friend.

After some days spent in listless indolence, during which Itraversed many leagues, I arrived at Strasburgh, where I waited twodays for Clerval. He came. Alas, how great was the contrast betweenus! He was alive to every new scene; joyful when he saw the beautiesof the setting sun, and more happy when he beheld it rise, andrecommence a new day. He pointed out to me the shifting colours ofthe landscape, and the appearances of the sky. “This is what it is tolive;” he cried, “now I enjoy existence! But you, my dearFrankenstein, wherefore are you desponding and sorrowful?” Intruth, I was occupied by gloomy thoughts, and neither saw thedescent of the evening star, nor the golden sun-rise reflected in theRhine.—And you, my friend, would be far more amused with thejournal of Clerval, who observed the scenery with an eye of feelingand delight, than to listen to my reflections. I, a miserable wretch,haunted by a curse that shut up every avenue to enjoyment.

I was the slave of my creature

for a more indulgent and less dictatorial parentdid not exist upon earth.

I listened to my father in silence, and remained for some timeincapable of offering any reply. I revolved rapidly in my mind amultitude of thoughts, and endeavoured to arrive at someconclusion. Alas! to me the idea of an immediate union with mycousin was one of horror and dismay. I was bound by a solemnpromise, which I had not yet fulfilled, and dared not break; or, if Idid, what manifold miseries might not impend over me and mydevoted family! Could I enter into a festival with this deadly weightyet hanging round my neck, and bowing me to the ground. I mustperform my engagement, and let the monster depart with his mate,before I allowed myself to enjoy the delight of an union from which Iexpected peace.

“I confess, my son, that I have always looked forward to yourmarriage with your cousin as the tie of our domestic comfort, and thestay of my declining years. You were attached to each other fromyour earliest infancy; you studied together, and appeared, indispositions and tastes, entirely suited to one another. But so blind isthe experience of man, that what I conceived to be the best assistantsto my plan may have entirely destroyed it. You, perhaps, regard heras your sister, without any wish that she might become your wife.Nay, you may have met with another whom you may love; and,considering yourself as bound in honour to your cousin, this strugglemay occasion the poignant misery which you appear to feel.”

“I swear,” he cried, “by the sun, and by the blue sky of heaven, thatif you grant my prayer, while they exist you shall never behold meagain. Depart to your home, and commence your labours: I shallwatch their progress with unutterable anxiety; and fear not but thatwhen you are ready I shall appear.”

What I ask of you is reasonable andmoderate; I demand a creature of another sex, but as hideous asmyself: the gratification is small, but it is all that I can receive, and itshall content me. It is true, we shall be monsters, cut off from all theworld; but on that account we shall be more attached to one another.Our lives will not be happy, but they will be harmless, and free fromthe misery I now feel. Oh! my creator, make me happy; let me feelgratitude towards you for one benefit! Let me see that I excite thesympathy of some existing thing; do not deny me my request!”

“I do refuse it,” I replied; “and no torture shall ever extort aconsent from me. You may render me the most miserable of men,but you shall never make me base in my own eyes. Shall I createanother like yourself, whose joint wickedness might desolate theworld. Begone! I have answered you; you may torture me, but I willnever consent.”

We maynot part until you have promised to comply with my requisition. I amalone, and miserable; man will not associate with me; but one asdeformed and horrible as myself would not deny herself to me. Mycompanion must be of the same species, and have the same defects.This being you must create.”

sometimes wishing to see you, sometimes resolved to quit theworld and its miseries for ever.

“I gazed on my victim, and my heart swelled with exultation andhellish triumph: clapping my hands, I exclaimed, ‘I, too, can createdesolation; my enemy is not impregnable; this death will carrydespair to him, and a thousand other miseries shall torment anddestroy him.’

From you only could I hope for succour, althoughtowards you I felt no sentiment but that of hatred. Unfeeling,heartless creator! you had endowed me with perceptions andpassions, and then cast me abroad an object for the scorn and horrorof mankind. But on you only had I any claim for pity and redress,and from you I determined to seek that justice which I vainlyattempted to gain from any other being that wore the human form

I learned from yourpapers that you were my father, my creator; and to whom could Iapply with more fitness than to him who had given me life?

from that moment I declaredeverlasting war against the species, and, more than all, against himwho had formed me, and sent me forth to this insupportable misery.

“Cursed, cursed creator! Why did I live? Why, in that instant, did Inot extinguish the spark of existence which you had so wantonlybestowed? I know not; despair had not yet taken possession of me;my feelings were those of rage and revenge. I could with pleasurehave destroyed the cottage and its inhabitants, and have gluttedmyself with their shrieks and misery

‘Hateful day when I received life!’ I exclaimed inagony. ‘Cursed creator! Why did you form a monster so hideous thateven you turned from me in disgust? God in pity made man beautifuland alluring, after his own image; but my form is a filthy type ofyour’s, more horrid from its very resemblance. Satan had hiscompanions, fellow-devils, to admire and encourage him; but I amsolitary and detested.’

Like Adam, I was createdapparently united by no link to any other being in existence; but hisstate was far different from mine in every other respect. He had comeforth from the hands of God a perfect creature, happy andprosperous, guarded by the especial care of his Creator; he wasallowed to converse with, and acquire knowledge from beings of asuperior nature: but I was wretched, helpless, and alone. Many timesI considered Satan as the fitter emblem of my condition; for often,like him, when I viewed the bliss of my protectors, the bitter gall ofenvy rose within me.

My person was hideous,and my stature gigantic: what did this mean? Who was I? What wasI? Whence did I come? What was my destination? These questionscontinually recurred, but I was unable to solve them.

The gentle and domestic manners itdescribed, combined with lofty sentiments and feelings, which hadfor their object something out of self, accorded well with myexperience among my protectors, and with the wants which were forever alive in my own bosom. But I thought Werter himself a moredivine being than I had ever beheld or imagined; his charactercontained no pretension, but it sunk deep. The disquisitions upondeath and suicide were calculated to fill me with wonder. I did notpretend to enter into the merits of the case, yet I inclined towards theopinions of the hero, whose extinction I wept, without preciselyunderstanding it.

“Other lessons were impressed upon me even more deeply. I heardof the difference of sexes

And what was I? Ofmy creation and creator I was absolutely ignorant; but I knew that Ipossessed no money, no friends, no kind of property. I was, besides,endowed with a figure hideously deformed and loathsome; I was noteven of the same nature as man. I was more agile than they, andcould subsist upon coarser diet; I bore the extremes of heat and coldwith less injury to my frame; my stature far exceeded their’s. When Ilooked around, I saw and heard of none like me. Was I then amonster, a blot upon the earth, from which all men fled, and whomall men disowned?

Was man, indeed, at once so powerful, so virtuous, and magnificent,yet so vicious and base? He appeared at one time a mere scion of theevil principle, and at another as all that can be conceived of nobleand godlike. To be a great and virtuous man appeared the highesthonour that can befall a sensitive being; to be base and vicious, asmany on record have been, appeared the lowest degradation, acondition more abject than that of the blind mole or harmless worm.For a long time I could not conceive how one man could go forth tomurder his fellow, or even why there were laws and governments;but when I heard details of vice and bloodshed, my wonder ceased,and I turned away with disgust and loathing.

Was man, indeed, at once so powerful, so virtuous, and magnificent,yet so vicious and base?

“I had admired the perfect forms of my cottagers—their grace,beauty, and delicate complexions: but how was I terrified, when Iviewed myself in a transparent pool! At first I started back, unable tobelieve that it was indeed I who was reflected in the mirror; andwhen I became fully convinced that I was in reality the monster that Iam, I was filled with the bitterest sensations of despondence andmortification. Alas! I did not yet entirely know the fatal effects of thismiserable deformity.

“I spent the winter in this manner. The gentle manners and beautyof the cottagers greatly endeared them to me: when they wereunhappy, I felt depressed; when they rejoiced, I sympathized in theirjoys. I saw few human beings beside them; and if any otherhappened to enter the cottage, their harsh manners and rude gaitonly enhanced to me the superior accomplishments of my friends.

The girl wascalled sister, or Agatha; and the youth Felix, brother or son. I cannotdescribe the delight I felt when I learned the ideas appropriated toeach of these sounds, and was able to pronounce them. Idistinguished several other words, without being able as yet tounderstand or apply them; such as good, dearest, unhappy.

“I expected this reception,” said the daemon. “All men hate thewretched; how then must I be hated, who am miserable beyond allliving things! Yet you, my creator, detest and spurn me, thy creature,to whom thou art bound by ties only dissoluble by the annihilation ofone of us. You purpose to kill me. How dare you sport thus with life?Do your duty towards me, and I will do mine towards you and therest of mankind. If you will comply with my conditions, I will leavethem and you at peace; but if you refuse, I will glut the maw of death,until it be satiated with the blood of your remaining friends.”

He approached; hiscountenance bespoke bitter anguish, combined with disdain andmalignity, while its unearthly ugliness rendered it almost toohorrible for human eyes.

should I by my basedesertion leave them exposed and unprotected to the malice of thefiend whom I had let loose among them?

This state of mind preyed upon my health, which had entirelyrecovered from the first shock it had sustained. I shunned the face ofman; all sound of joy or complacency was torture to me; solitude wasmy only consolation—deep, dark, death-like solitude.

I wandered like an evil spirit, for I had committeddeeds of mischief beyond description horrible, and more, muchmore, (I persuaded myself) was yet behind. Yet my heart overflowedwith kindness, and the love of virtue. I had begun life withbenevolent intentions, and thirsted for the moment when I shouldput them in practice, and make myself useful to my fellow-beings.Now all was blasted: instead of that serenity of conscience, whichallowed me to look back upon the past with self-satisfaction, andfrom thence to gather promise of new hopes, I was seized by remorseand the sense of guilt, which hurried me away to a hell of intensetortures, such as no language can describe.

The blood flowed freely in my veins, but a weight of despair andremorse pressed on my heart, which nothing could remove.

Alas! I hadturned loose into the world a depraved wretch, whose delight was incarnage and misery; had he not murdered my brother?

I could not be mistaken. A flash oflightning illuminated the object, and discovered its shape plainly tome; its gigantic stature, and the deformity of its aspect, more hideousthan belongs to humanity, instantly informed me that it was thewretch, the filthy daemon to whom I had given life. What did hethere? Could he be (I shuddered at the conception) the murderer ofmy brother? No sooner did that idea cross my imagination, than Ibecame convinced of its truth; my teeth chattered, and I was forcedto lean against a tree for support. The figure passed me quickly, and Ilost it in the gloom. Nothing in human shape could have destroyedthat fair child. He was the murderer!

William is dead!—that sweet child, whose smiles delighted andwarmed my heart, who was so gentle, yet so gay! Victor, he ismurdered!

A selfish pursuit had cramped and narrowed me,until your gentleness and affection warmed and opened my senses; Ibecame the same happy creature who, a few years ago, loving andbeloved by all, had no sorrow or care

“I will not mention it, if it agitates you; but your father andcousin would be very happy if they received a letter from you in yourown hand-writing. They hardly know how ill you have been, and areuneasy at your long silence.”

I felt suddenly, and forthe first time during many months, calm and serene joy.

Like one who, on a lonely road,Doth walk in fear and dread,And, having once turn’d round, walks on,And turns no more his lead;Because he knows a frightful fiendDoth close behind him tread

I had gazed on him while unfinished; he was ugly then;but when those muscles and joints were rendered capable of motion,it became a thing such as even Dante could not have conceived

the miserable monste

The different accidents of life are not so changeable as the feelingsof human nature.

How can I describe my emotions at this catastrophe, or howdelineate the wretch whom with such infinite pains and care I hadendeavoured to form? His limbs were in proportion, and I hadselected his features as beautiful. Beautiful!—Great God! His yellowskin scarcely covered the work of muscles and arteries beneath; hishair was of a lustrous black, and flowing; his teeth of a pearlywhiteness; but these luxuriances only formed a more horrid contrastwith his watery eyes, that seemed almost of the same colour as thedun white sockets in which they were set, his shrivelled complexion,and straight black lips.

But my enthusiasm waschecked by my anxiety, and I appeared rather like one doomed byslavery to toil in the mines, or any other unwholesome trade, than anartist occupied by his favourite employment. Every night I wasoppressed by a slow fever, and I became nervous to a most painfuldegree; a disease that I regretted the more because I had hithertoenjoyed most excellent health, and had always boasted of thefirmness of my nerves. But I believed that exercise and amusementwould soon drive away such symptoms; and I promised myself bothof these, when my creation should be complete.

Life and deathappeared to me ideal bounds, which I should first break through, andpour a torrent of light into our dark world.

Life and deathappeared to me ideal bounds, which I should first break through, andpour a torrent of light into our dark world. A new species would blessme as its creator and source; many happy and excellent natureswould owe their being to me. No father could claim the gratitude ofhis child so completely as I should deserve their’s. Pursuing thesereflections, I thought, that if I could bestow animation upon lifelessmatter, I might in process of time (although I now found itimpossible) renew life where death had apparently devoted the bodyto corruption.

Learn from me, if not bymy precepts, at least by my example, how dangerous is theacquirement of knowledge, and how much happier that man is whobelieves his native town to be the world, than he who aspires tobecome greater than his nature will allow.

The astonishment which I had at first experienced on thisdiscovery soon gave place to delight and rapture. After so much timespent in painful labour, to arrive at once at the summit of my desires,was the most gratifying consummation of my toils. But this discoverywas so great and overwhelming, that all the steps by which I hadbeen progressively led to it were obliterated, and I beheld only theresult. What had been the study and desire of the wisest men sincethe creation of the world, was now within my grasp. Not that, like amagic scene, it all opened upon me at once: the information I hadobtained was of a nature rather to direct my endeavours so soon as Ishould point them towards the object of my search, than to exhibitthat object already accomplished.

became myself capable of bestowinganimation upon lifeless matter.

Darkness had no effect upon my fancy; and a church-yard was to memerely the receptacle of bodies deprived of life, which, from beingthe seat of beauty and strength, had become food for the worm. NowI was led to examine the cause and progress of this decay, and forcedto spend days and nights in vaults and charnel houses. My attentionwas fixed upon every object the most insupportable to the delicacy ofthe human feelings. I saw how the fine form of man was degradedand wasted; I beheld the corruption of death succeed to the bloomingcheek of life; I saw how the worm inherited the wonders of the eyeand brain. I paused, examining and analysing all the minutiæ ofcausation, as exemplified in the change from life to death, and deathto life, until from the midst of this darkness a sudden light broke inupon me—a light so brilliant and wondrous, yet so simple, that whileI became dizzy with the immensity of the prospect which itillustrated, I was surprised that among so many men of genius, whohad directed their inquiries towards the same science, that I aloneshould be reserved to discover so astonishing a secret.

Whence, I often asked myself, did theprinciple of life proceed?

None but those who haveexperienced them can conceive of the enticements of science.

Professor Krempe often askedme, with a sly smile, how Cornelius Agrippa went on? whilst M.Waldman expressed the most heartfelt exultation in my progress.

But this stateof mind had place only in the first steps towards knowledge: themore fully I entered into the science, the more exclusively I pursuedit for its own sake. That application, which at first had been a matterof duty and resolution, now became so ardent and eager, that thestars often disappeared in the light of morning whilst I was yetengaged in my laboratory.

Thus ended a day memorable to me; it decided my future destiny.

He then took me into his laboratory, and explained to me the usesof his various machines; instructing me as to what I ought toprocure, and promising me the use of his own, when I should haveadvanced far enough in the science not to derange their mechanism.He also gave me the list of books which I had requested

had removed my prejudices against modernchemists; and I, at the same time, requested his advice concerningthe books I ought to procure.

He said, that “these weremen to whose indefatigable zeal modern philosophers were indebtedfor most of the foundations of their knowledge. They had left to us,as an easier task, to give new names, and arrange in connectedclassifications, the facts which they in a great degree had been theinstruments of bringing to light. The labours of men of genius,however erroneously directed, scarcely ever fail in ultimately turningto the solid advantage of mankind.”

“The ancient teachers of this science,” said he, “promisedimpossibilities, and performed nothing. The modern masterspromise very little; they know that metals cannot be transmuted, andthat the elixir of life is a chimera. But these philosophers, whosehands seem only made to dabble in dirt, and their eyes to pour overthe microscope or crucible, have indeed performed miracles. Theypenetrate into the recesses of nature, and shew how she works in herhiding places. They ascend into the heavens; they have discoveredhow the blood circulates, and the nature of the air we breathe. Theyhave acquired new and almost unlimited powers; they can commandthe thunders of heaven, mimic the earthquake, and even mock theinvisible world with its own shadows.”

I was required to exchange chimeras of boundless grandeur forrealities of little worth.

It was very different,when the masters of the science sought immortality and power; suchviews, although futile, were grand: but now the scene was changed.

“Have you,” he said, “really spent your time in studying suchnonsense?”

I ardentlydesired the acquisition of knowledge. I had often, when at home,thought it hard to remain during my youth cooped up in one place,and had longed to enter the world, and take my station among otherhuman beings. Now my desires were complied with, and it would,indeed, have been folly to repent.

I threw myself into the chaise that was to convey me away, andindulged in the most melancholy reflections. I, who had ever beensurrounded by amiable companions, continually engaged inendeavouring to bestow mutual pleasure, I was now alone. In theuniversity, whither I was going, I must form my own friends, and bemy own protector. My life had hitherto been remarkably secludedand domestic; and this had given me invincible repugnance to newcountenances.

She determined to fulfil her duties with the greatestexactness; and she felt that that most imperious duty, of renderingher uncle and cousins happy, had devolved upon her. She consoledme, amused her uncle, instructed my brothers; and I never beheldher so enchanting as at this time, when she was continuallyendeavouring to contribute to the happiness of others, entirelyforgetful of herself.

Elizabeth, my love, you must supply my place to your youngercousins.

The consequences of thisimprudence were fatal. On the third day my mother sickened; herfever was very malignant, and the looks of her attendantsprognosticated the worst event. On her death-bed the fortitude andbenignity of this admirable woman did not desert her. She joined thehands of Elizabeth and myself:

Another task also devolved upon me, when I became the instructorof my brothers. Ernest was six years younger than myself, and wasmy principal pupil. He had been afflicted with ill health from hisinfancy, through which Elizabeth and I had been his constant nurses:his disposition was gentle, but he was incapable of any severeapplication. William, the youngest of our family, was yet an infant,and the most beautiful little fellow in the world; his lively blue eyes,dimpled cheeks, and endearing manners, inspired the tenderestaffection.

Latin was already familiar tome, and I began to read some of the easiest Greek authors withoutthe help of a lexicon. I also perfectly understood English andGerman.

This last stroke completed the overthrow of Cornelius Agrippa,Albertus Magnus, and Paracelsus, who had so long reigned the lordsof my imagination. But by some fatality I did not feel inclined tocommence the study of any modern system; and this disinclinationwas influenced by the following circumstance.

I remained, while the storm lasted, watching itsprogress with curiosity and delight. As I stood at the door, on asudden I beheld a stream of fire issue from an old and beautiful oak,which stood about twenty yards from our house; and so soon as thedazzling light vanished, the oak had disappeared, and nothingremained but a blasted stump. When we visited it the next morning,we found the tree shattered in a singular manner. It was notsplintered by the shock, but entirely reduced to thin ribbands ofwood. I never beheld any thing so utterly destroyed.

The natural phænomena that take place every day before our eyesdid not escape my examinations. Distillation, and the wonderfuleffects of steam, processes of which my favourite authors wereutterly ignorant, excited my astonishment; but my utmost wonderwas engaged by some experiments on an air-pump, which I sawemployed by a gentleman whom we were in the habit of visiting.

It may appear very strange, that a disciple of Albertus Magnusshould arise in the eighteenth century; but our family was notscientifical, and I had not attended any of the lectures given at theschools of Geneva. My dreams were therefore undisturbed by reality;and I entered with the greatest diligence into the search of thephilosopher’s stone and the elixir of life. But the latter obtained mymost undivided attention: wealth was an inferior object; but whatglory would attend the discovery, if I could banish disease from thehuman frame, and render man invulnerable to any but a violentdeath!

I often wished to communicate these secret stores ofknowledge to my father, yet his indefinite censure of my favouriteAgrippa always withheld me. I disclosed my discoveries to Elizabeth,therefore, under a promise of strict secrecy; but she did not interestherself in the subject, and I was left by her to pursue my studiesalone.

But the cursory glance my fatherhad taken of my volume by no means assured me that he wasacquainted with its contents; and I continued to read with thegreatest avidity.

“Ah!Cornelius Agrippa! My dear Victor, do not waste your time upon this;it is sad trash.”

Natural philosophy is the genius that has regulated my fate; Idesire therefore, in this narration, to state those facts which led tomy predilection for that science.

I feel pleasure in dwelling on the recollections of childhood, beforemisfortune had tainted my mind, and changed its bright visions ofextensive usefulness into gloomy and narrow reflections upon self.But, in drawing the picture of my early days, I must not omit torecord those events which led, by insensible steps to my after tale ofmisery: for when I would account to myself for the birth of thatpassion, which afterwards ruled my destiny, I find it arise, like amountain river, from ignoble and almost forgotten sources; but,swelling as it proceeded, it became the torrent which, in its course,has swept away all my hopes and joys.

No youth could have passed more happily than mine. My parentswere indulgent, and my companions amiable. Our studies were neverforced; and by some means we always had an end placed in view,which excited us to ardour in the prosecution of them. It was by thismethod, and not by emulation, that we were urged to application.Elizabeth was not incited to apply herself to drawing, that hercompanions might not outstrip her; but through the desire ofpleasing her aunt, by the representation of some favourite scenedone by her own hand. We learned Latin and English, that we mightread the writings in those languages; and so far from study beingmade odious to us through punishment, we loved application, andour amusements would have been the labours of other children.Perhaps we did not read so

Henry Clerval was the son of a merchant of Geneva, anintimate friend of my father. He was a boy of singular talent andfancy. I remember, when he was nine years old, he wrote a fairy tale,which was the delight and amazement of all his companions. Hisfavourite study consisted in books of chivalry and romance; andwhen very young, I can remember, that we used to act playscomposed by him out of these favourite books, the principalcharacters of which were Orlando, Robin Hood, Amadis, and St.George.

I was more calm and philosophical than mycompanion; yet my temper was not so yielding. My application wasof longer endurance; but it was not so severe whilst it endured. Idelighted in investigating the facts relative to the actual world; shebusied herself in following the aërial creations of the poets. Theworld was to me a secret, which I desired to discover; to her it was avacancy, which she sought to people with imaginations of her own.

While I admired her understanding and fancy, I loved to tendon her, as I should on a favourite animal;

From this time Elizabeth Lavenza became my playfellow, and, aswe grew older, my friend. She was docile and good tempered, yet gayand playful as a summer insect. Although she was lively andanimated, her feelings were strong and deep, and her dispositionuncommonly affectionate. No one could better enjoy liberty, yet noone could submit with more grace than she did to constraint andcaprice. Her imagination was luxuriant, yet her capability ofapplication was great. Her person was the image of her mind; herhazel eyes, although as lively as a bird’s, possessed an attractivesoftness. Her figure was light and airy; and, though capable ofenduring great fatigue, she appeared the most fragile creature in theworld. While I admired her understanding and fancy, I loved to tendon her, as I should on a favourite animal; and I never saw so muchgrace both of person and mind united to so little pretension.

Of these I was the eldest, and thedestined successor to all his labours and utility. No creature couldhave more tender parents than mine. My improvement and healthwere their constant care, especially as I remained for several yearstheir only child.

My ancestors had been for many yearscounsellors and syndics; and my father had filled several publicsituations with honour and reputation. He was respected by all whoknew him for his integrity and indefatigable attention to publicbusiness. He passed his younger days perpetually occupied by theaffairs of his country; and it was not until the decline of life that hethought of marrying, and bestowing on the state sons who mightcarry his virtues and his name down to posterity.

“I thank you,” he replied, “for your sympathy, but it is useless; myfate is nearly fulfilled. I wait but for one event, and then I shallrepose in peace. I understand your feeling,” continued he, perceivingthat I wished to interrupt him; “but you are mistaken, my friend, ifthus you will allow me to name you; nothing can alter my destiny:listen to my history, and you will perceive how irrevocably it isdetermined.

Yesterday the stranger said to me, “You may easily perceive,Captain Walton, that I have suffered great and unparalleledmisfortunes. I had determined, once, that the memory of these evilsshould die with me; but you have won me to alter my determination.You seek for knowledge and wisdom, as I once did; and I ardentlyhope that the gratification of your wishes may not be a serpent tosting you, as mine has been. I do not know that the relation of mymisfortunes will be useful to you, yet, if you are inclined, listen to mytale. I believe that the strange incidents connected with it will afforda view of nature, which may enlarge your faculties andunderstanding. You will hear of powers and occurrences, such as youhave been accustomed to believe impossible: but I do not doubt thatmy tale conveys in its series internal evidence of the truth of theevents of which it is composed.”

Even broken in spirit as he is, no one can feel more deeply than hedoes the beauties of nature. The starry sky, the sea, and every sightafforded by these wonderful regions, seems still to have the power ofelevating his soul from earth. Such a man has a double existence: hemay suffer misery, and be overwhelmed by disappointments; yetwhen he has retired into himself, he will be like a celestial spirit, thathas a halo around him, within whose circle no grief or folly ventures.

I may receiveyour letters (though the chance is very doubtful) on some occasionswhen I need them most to support my spirits.

Well, these are useless complaints; I shall certainly find no friendon the wide ocean, nor even here in Archangel, among merchantsand seamen. Yet some feelings, unallied to the dross of humannature, beat even in these rugged bosoms.

It is true that I have thought more, and thatmy day dreams are more extended and magnificent; but they want(as the painters call it) keeping; and I greatly need a friend whowould have sense enough not to despise me as romantic, andaffection enough for me to endeavour to regulate my mind.

NowI am twenty-eight, and am in reality more illiterate than manyschool-boys of fifteen

I desire thecompany of a man who could sympathize with me; whose eyes wouldreply to mine.

I have no friend, Margaret: when I am glowing with theenthusiasm of success, there will be none to participate my joy; if Iam assailed by disappointment, no one will endeavour to sustain mein dejection.

If Isucceed, many, many months, perhaps years, will pass before youand I may meet. If I fail, you will see me again soon, or never.

My life might have been passed in ease and luxury;but I preferred glory to every enticement that wealth placed in mypath.

I commenced by inuring my body tohardship. I accompanied the whale-fishers on several expeditions tothe North Sea; I voluntarily endured cold, famine, thirst, and want ofsleep; I often worked harder than the common sailors during theday, and devoted my nights to the study of mathematics, the theoryof medicine, and those branches of physical science from which anaval adventurer might derive the greatest practical advantage.Twice I actually hired myself as an undermate in a Greenland whaler,and acquitted myself to admiration. I must own I felt a little proud,when my captain offered me the second dignity in the vessel, andentreated me to remain with the greatest earnestness; so valuable didhe consider my services.

I imagined that I also might obtain a niche in the templewhere the names of Homer and Shakespeare are consecrated.

These volumes were my study day and night, and myfamiliarity with them increased that regret which I had felt, as achild, on learning that my father’s dying injunction had forbidden myuncle to allow me to embark in a sea-faring life.

My education was neglected, yet I was passionatelyfond of reading.

for nothing contributes so much totranquillize the mind as a steady purpose,—a point on which the soulmay fix its intellectual eye.

I feel my heart glow with an enthusiasm whichelevates me to heaven

But, supposing all these conjectures to be false, youcannot contest the inestimable benefit which I shall confer on allmankind to the last generation, by discovering a passage near thepole to those countries, to reach which at present so many monthsare requisite; or by ascertaining the secret of the magnet, which, if atall possible, can only be effected by an undertaking such as mine.

These are my enticements, and they are sufficient to conquerall fear of danger or death, and to induce me to commence thislaborious voyage with the joy a child feels when he embarks in a littleboat, with his holiday mates, on an expedition of discovery up hisnative river.

I shall satiatemy ardent curiosity with the sight of a part of the world never beforevisited, and may tread a land never before imprinted by the foot ofman.

Inspirited by this wind of promise, my day dreamsbecome more fervent and vivid.

From these qualities, a prince must guard himself asif from a reef, and he must strive to make everyone recognize inhis actions greatness, spirit, dignity, and strength. Concerningthe private affairs of his subjects, he must insist that his decisionsbe irrevocable. And he should maintain this reputation in such away that no man can imagine he is able to deceive or trick him.

On the contrary, it should recognize that they will all berisky, for we find this to be in the order of things: that wheneverwe try to avoid one disadvantage, we run into another. Prudenceconsists in knowing how to recognize the nature of disadvantages,and how to choose the least sorry one as good.

But when the prince declares himself energetically infavour of one side, if the one with whom you have joined wins, hehas an obligation towards you and there exists a bond of affectionbetween you, although he may be powerful and you may be left inhis power. Men are never so dishonest that they will repress anally with such a flagrant display of ingratitude. Nor are victoriesever so clear-cut that the victor can be completely free of con-cern, especially for justice. But if the one with whom you joinloses, you can be given refuge by him, and while he is able to doso, he can help you, and you will become the comrade of a fortunethat may flourish again.

A prince is also respected when he is a true friend and a trueenemy: that is, when he declares himself to be on the side of oneprince against another, without reserve.

And thus he has always accomplished andorganized great deeds, that have always kept the minds of hissubjects surprised, amazed, and occupied with their outcome.One action of his would spring from another in such a way that,between one and the other, he would never give men enough timeto be able to work calmly against him.

In order to hold their states more securely, princes have beenaccustomed to erect fortresses that may serve as the bridle and bitfor those who might plot an attack against them, and to have asecure shelter from a sudden attack. I praise this method, becauseit has been employed since ancient times.

the prince will always easily win the support of those men whohave been enemies at the beginning of the principality, the kind ofmen who must have support in order to maintain themselves.They are even more obliged to serve him loyally, inasmuch asthey recognize the need to cancel the suspicious opinion theprince had of them through their deeds. And thus the prince willalways derive more profit from them than from those who neglecthis affairs and serve him with too much self-confidence.

of a new prince, who has a greater need to acquire reputation thana hereditary prince does–– creates enemies for him, and has themundertake enterprises against him so that he will have the chanceto overcome them and to climb higher up the ladder his enemieshave brought him

Without a doubt, princes become great when they overcomedifficulties and obstacles imposed upon them

Therefore, as I have said, a new prince in a new principality hasalways instituted an army, and the history books are filled withsuch examples. But when a prince acquires a new state that isjoined to his old one like an appendage,* then it is necessary todisarm that state, except for those who have been your partisansin its acquisition.

Now, there has never been a time when a new prince disarmedhis subjects. On the contrary, when he has found them unarmed,he has always armed them, because when armed those armsbecome yours: those whom you suspect become loyal, and thosewho were loyal remain so, and they become your partisans ratherthan your subjects. Since all of your subjects cannot be armed,when those you arm receive benefits, you can deal more securelywith the others.

Now it is more neces-sary for all princes, except the Turk and the Sultan,* to satisfy thepeople more than the soldiers, since the people can do more thanthe soldiers

For in Severus there was so much virtue that, keeping the sol-diers as his allies even though the people were oppressed by him,he was always able to rule happily, since those abilities of his madehim so admired in the eyes of both the soldiers and the peoplethat the former were awestruck and stupefied and the latter wererespectful and satisfied.

if a princewishes to maintain the state, he is often obliged not to be good,because whenever that group you believe you need to support youis corrupted–– whether it be the people, the soldiers, or thenobles–– it is to your advantage to follow their inclinations inorder to satisfy them, and then good deeds are your enemy.

The people loved peace and quiet and,because of this, they were pleased by decent princes, while thesoldiers loved a prince with military spirit who was cruel, arro-gant, and rapacious. They wanted him to exercise such qualitieson the people, so that they might double their salary and give ventto their avarice and cruelty.

Such a course of action was necessary, and since princes cannotavoid being hated by somebody, they must first seek not to behated by the largest group. When they cannot do this, they musttry with every effort to avoid the hatred of the most powerfulgroup.

Perhaps it may seem to many who have studied the lives anddeaths of some Roman emperors* that they provide examplescontrary to this opinion of mine. For we discover that some ofthem always lived nobly and demonstrated great strength ofcharacter, yet nevertheless lost their empire or were killed bytheir own soldiers who plotted against them.

I conclude that a prince mustrespect the nobles but not make himself hated by the people.

In order torelieve himself of the blame he might incur from the nobles if hesupported the common people, and from the common people ifhe supported the nobles, he therefore established a third judicialbody that might restrain the nobles and favour the lower classeswithout burdening the king

For he who organized that kingdom–– recognizing the ambitionof the nobles and their insolence, and being aware of the necessityof keeping a bit in their mouths to hold them back, on the onehand; while on the other, knowing the hatred of the people for thenobles, based upon fear, and wanting to reassure them–– did notwish this to be the particular concern of the king.

I conclude, therefore, that a prince should not be too con-cerned about conspiracies when the people are well disposedtoward him, but that when they are hostile and regard him withhatred, he must fear everything and everyone.

The Canneschi family who conspired against himmurdered Messer Annibale Bentivoglio, Prince of Bologna andgrandfather of the present Messer Annibale. He left behind noheir except Messer Giovanni, then only in swaddling clothes. Assoon as this murder occurred, the people rose up and killed all theCanneschi. This happened because of the good will that thehouse of the Bentivoglio enjoyed in those days. This good willwas so great that, with Annibale dead and no one of that familyleft in the city who could rule Bologna, having heard that inFlorence there was one of the Bentivoglio bloodline who wasbelieved until that time to be the son of a blacksmith, theBolognese people went to Florence to find him,* and they gavehim the control of the city. He ruled it until Messer Giovannicame of age to rule.

One of the most powerful remedies a prince has against conspir-acies is not to be hated by the people, for whoever plans a con-spiracy always believes that he will satisfy the people by killingthe prince.

And so, with thegood will of the people added to all these things, it is impossiblefor anyone to be so rash as to plan a conspiracy, for where aconspirator usually has to be afraid before he executes his evildeed, in this case, having the people as an enemy, he must beafraid even afterwards, when the excess has occurred, nor can hehope to find any refuge because of this.

And even if external conditions change, if he is properlyorganized and lives as I have said, and does not lose control ofhimself, he will always be able to withstand every attack,

Fora prince should have two fears: one internal, concerning hissubjects; the other external, concerning foreign powers.

He must refrain from this. In most cases,so long as you do not deprive them of either their honour or theirproperty, most men live content, and you only have to contendwith the ambition of the few, who can be restrained withoutdifficulty and by many means.

what makes him hated above allelse is being rapacious and a usurper of the property

I should like to discuss the others briefly underthis general rule: that the prince, as was noted above, shouldconcentrate upon avoiding those things that make him hated andcontemptible.

Men in general judge more by their eyesthan their hands: everyone can see, but few can feel. Everyonesees what you seem to be, few touch upon what you are

One must understand this: a prince, and especially anew prince, cannot observe all those things for which men areconsidered good, because in order to maintain the state he mustoften act against his faith, against charity, against humanity, andagainst religion.

But it is necessary to know how to colourover this nature effectively, and to be a great pretender and dis-sembler.

A wise ruler, therefore, cannot andshould not keep his word when such an observance would be tohis disadvantage, and when the reasons that caused him to make apromise are removed.

H praiseworthy it is for a prince to keep his word and to livewith integrity and not by cunning, everyone knows. Nevertheless,one sees from experience in our times that the princes who haveaccomplished great deeds are those who have thought little aboutkeeping faith and who have known how cunningly to manipulatemen’s minds; and in the end they have surpassed those who laidtheir foundations upon sincerity.

Therefore, you must know that there are two modes of fight-ing: one in accordance with the laws, the other with force.*

This couldnot have arisen from anything other than his inhuman cruelty,which, along with his many other virtues, made him always vener-able and terrifying in the eyes of his soldiers. Without that quality,his other virtues would not have sufficed to attain the same effect

With a very few examples of cruelty, he willprove more compassionate than those who, out of excessivemercy, permit disorders to continue from which arise murdersand plundering, for these usually injure the entire community,while the executions ordered by the prince injure specific indi-viduals.

So it iswiser to live with the reputation of a miser, which gives birth toan infamy without hatred, than to be forced to incur the reputa-tion of rapacity because you want to be considered generous,which gives birth to an infamy with hatred.The Prince

A man who wishes to profess goodness at all times will cometo ruin among so many who are not good. Therefore, it is neces-sary for a prince who wishes to maintain himself to learn how notto be good, and to use this knowledge or not to use it according tonecessity.

A wise prince must follow such methods as these and never beidle in peaceful times, but he must turn them diligently to hisadvantage in order to be able to profit from them in timesof adversity, so that when Fortune changes she will find himprepared to resist her.The Prince

But as for study, the prince must read histories and in themconsider the deeds of excellent men.

He should, therefore, never take his mind from this exercise ofwar, and in peacetime he must train himself more than in time ofwar.