The natural vegetation found in grasslands such as: C4 grasses, C3 grasses, legumes, and other forbs.

When the effectiveness of increased species richness on carbon storage, in an environment, starts to level off and not increase so drastically. This effect on the relationship between plant diversity and carbon sequestering can be seen the longer time goes on.

The rate of photosynthesis of plants minus the rate of respiration plants conduct to survive.

Plants convert light energy, from the sun, to sugar during photosynthesis. Plants then use the sugar they created as energy to survive and function in their environment, this is considered plant respiration. The total amount of sugar left over is considered the net primary productivity of a plant.

An abiotic element that affects an environment. The amount of precipitation, temperature, geography, etc. These elements affect a plant's ability to reproduce, function, and conduct photosynthesis.

Growing only one type of plant species in an environment.

The use of only one plant species reduces the total amount of carbon uptake in a farmer's field and strips valuable nutrients in an environment and faster than the addition of multiple plant species.

The Conservation Reverse Program was a policy implemented by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), for sensitive agricultural lands to not be used for farming or ranching, but instead for conservation benefits. The conservation benefits the USDA wishes to advance are: plant species' ability to stabilize soil, filter water, purify air, and support local wildlife.

A social cost is an expense that must be payed by an entire society as a result of a particular event, action, or policy change. In this context, the event would be an increased species richness.

The ability of an environment to restore itself after the ecosystem has been through devastating changes. From the growth of primary organisms and the accumulation of food and energy, an ecosystem can rebuild itself.

Reservoirs of carbon that accumulate in plants, soil, ocean, and atmosphere. This paper specifically looks at the carbon reservoirs in the grassland ecosystems where the experiment is taking place.

The base-line economical worth assigned to plants for just being plants.This paper explains that there are many different characteristics that can be used to calculate a plant's economic worth based on the plant species importance to an ecosystem.The economical worth of plant species increases as levels of CO2 in the atmosphere increases because of their ability to take CO2 out of the atmosphere and store it.

Companies have to pay for the amount of carbon dioxide they emit, so in the context of this paper it means the dollar amount assigned to carbon.

Different species that conduct photosynthesis to create energy. Different plant species that convert light energy into chemical energy. For this experiment, the author questions the impact of increased species richness on carbon storage in American grasslands.

A rapid increase in the amount of a quantifiable unit. In plant species, proliferation refers to the rapid increase in the number of plant species that now inhabit earth. The diverse array of species around the world is a valuable component to producing ecosystem services that benefit all organisms.

Organisms that require oxygen to produce energy and to survive. Plants help to maintain the earth's oxygen rich atmosphere through photosynthesis (CO2 is taken in and oxygen is released). Without the existence of plant life, other organisms that depend on oxygen to breathe would not exist.

As plants conduct photosynthesis and gain energy, they grow. Plants accumulate biomass through the storage of carbon and uptake of other vital nutrients required for plant grow. By taking the dry-weight of plants, the scientist can see how much carbon is being taking up through the soil.

Marginal value is the amount of economic growth received for each additional unit of species richness relative to the previous unit. The paper suggests that marginal value decreases with the addition of species, when considering biomass accumulation, due to competition. This implies the addition of each new species to an ecosystem causes diminishing returns on rate of growth for all plants because each plant is competing for limited resources.

The amount of energy the grasslands will be producing. If there is a greater degree of competition between the different species than there will be a higher output of growth and carbon storage.

The number of different collective groups of organisms that are in a habitat. The increasing number of varieties of organisms will be compared to the carbon storage throughout the habitat. The scientists expect that a higher number of variety will disclose an increase in economic value.

A measure of the variety of life or different species in a specific environment. Increased biodiversity is associated with promoting competition which increases carbon storage.

The ability of plants to uptake carbon from the environment and convert it into biomass. Plants decrease CO2 levels by absorbing carbon from the atmosphere to use for photosynthesis.

Species that still exist.

The study of the external and internal structure and shape of organisms. This would include hominin skeletal structure, size, and foot shape.

The term refers to how tall a person is when standing upright.

DEET is a ubiquitous repellent known to effectively provide protection from many biting insects, particularly mosquitoes. Its exact interaction between itself and the organisms it targets are not yet fully known. Yet, what is understood is that it possesses two primary lines of negative feedback that act as a defense to prevent feeding. These two are the olfactory and gustatory levels. This, along with other smaller contributors are what give DEET its ability to deter insects

In statistics, the term robust or robustness refers to the strength of a statistical model, indicating that the model has good performance for data drawn from a wide range of probability distributions.

A power law is a functional relationship between two quantities, where one quantity varies as a power of the other.

An example of a power law is Zipf's Law, which says that the distribution of words in a given corpus of text is a function of the frequency of the words. In a given corpus of text, the most frequent word occurs twice as much as the second most frequent one, which shows up twice as much as the third most frequent one, and so on.

A stochastic event has a random probability distribution or pattern that may be analyzed statistically but may not be predicted precisely.

An aggregate shutdown is a stochastic event because it depends on the probability of that aggregate being found by predators (entities capable of shutting it down).

An aggregate is fragmented when it is broken down into other aggregates of smaller size. This happens, for instance, when an aggregate is shut down.

A bipartite graph is a set of graph vertices decomposed into two disjoint sets such that no two graph vertices within the same set are connected.

In the paper, the disjoint sets of nodes that constitute the bipartite graph are aggregates and followers. In this graph, there are no direct connections between aggregates (they can only be connected through other people). The same holds for followers: they are connected to aggregates, but not (directly) to other followers.

Self-radicalization is a phenomenon by which individuals become terrorists without affiliating with a radical group, although they may be influenced by its ideology and message.

Reference: http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Self-radicalization

An ad hoc group of followers of an online page that interact in a language-agnostic way and with freely chosen names that help attract followers without making public the identities of the group's members.

The paper uses the term aggreagates in three ways:

1. as a members of an ad hoc group of followers on an online page (as defined above);
2. as refering to pro-ISIS aggregates, which are aggregates that appear to express a strong allegiance to ISIS;
3. in contrast to followers, which are people who interact with aggregates online.

In the Supplementary Material, the authors provide a link to a video showing how agrregates can be set up for any purpose on Facebook, VKontakte, and other similar websites.

The term "ecology" can be defined as the set of relationships between a complex system and its surroundings or environment. In the context of this paper, the relationship between pro-ISIS ad hoc groups formed online constitutes an ecology. It can also be interpreted as "ecosystem" in this context.

A process that is repeated several times until a desired outcome is reached.

The extent to which observed data match the values expected by theory.

In this context, the value P = 0.86 says that 86% of the values observed matched those predicted by the proposed model.

This process happens when an unattached follower is combined to an aggregate, or when an aggregate is absorbed into another.

The shapes resembling parts of a shark's body. These shapes are shown in the chart by an increase followed by an abrupt drop.

Links that appear within a given post.

An Application Programming Interface (API) is a set of clearly defined methods of communication between various software components.

A community of interacting agents and their environment. In the context of this paper, the ecosystem has interacting agents (aggregates and followers), an environment (the Internet), and even predatory entities (police cybergroups, individual hackers, and website moderators).

Records of the same variables, which in the case of this paper are hashtags that may suggest ISIS-related activity, observed over a given period of time.

Polypropylene is a plastic polymer used in packaging, reusable containers, laboratory equipment, and medical devices. It is a polymer made of repeating subunits (groups of atoms) with three carbons in each subunit. Polypropylene is the second-most widely produced synthetic plastic, after polyethylene.

Polyethylene is a polymer, made of repeating subunits (groups of atoms) with two carbons in each subunit. It is the most commonly produced plastic in the world, used in applications such as plastic bags, films, and bottles.

Signals that conflict or interfere with one another.

The voltage generated by the difference in the concentrations of ions on either side of a membrane.

"Pouches" within the light organ that are lined with columnar-shaped cells, where the Vibrio attach.

The process in female reproduction where the eggs or ova (female gametes) are produced.

The process of testing a material to determine its composition and quality.

The transfer of DNA from a virus into a cell.

Shows radiation from somewhere else by allowing the wavelength to become shorter with a x-rays or ultraviolet waves.

This is a technique used in chemistry. It is important because it allows for the development of chemical compound of a desired chemical structure based on a similar product.

Proteins that bind to DNA and regulate gene expression.

Microliter; there are 1,000,000µl in one liter (L)

The corpora allata (CA) is responsible for the production and release of juvenile hormones. The corpora cardiaca (CC) complexes are responsible for regulating reproduction and metamorphosis. The CC send out messages for the body to produce hormones that mature ovaries and hormones to produce insulin.

This involves an intracellular signaling pathway, which occurs within the cell membrane of a cell, and is important in regulating the cell cycle. Also, it is directly related to how cancer forms and the length of an organism's lifespan.

This type of insulin is also known as beef insulin because it is extracted from the pancreas of cattle. Bovine insulin differs from human insulin because it is less soluble and absorbed by the body more slowly. Like human insulin, bovine insulin regulates how much glucose is administered to muscle and fat cells.

The glands that are attached to the brain of insects that produce juvenile hormones that help to promote gene expression in larva development.

The pause that occurs in an insect during development.

Transformation from juvenile to adult where the adult will have similar hormone levels before and after metamorphosis.

Able to adapt or be adapted to different functions. In this case, the juvenile hormone is a molecule that adjust to different environments.

The insulin/TOR pathway regulates a cell's and an organism's metabolism, and serves an essential function in controlling tissue growth and responses to starvation.

Type of skeletal muscle that takes up most of the muscle of a fish.

From the side.

The back of a body; posterior.

Relating to the region immediately beneath the skin.

A device that gives off electric impulses.

Using electric impulses (to contract muscles).

Occurs after the event.

An area filled with sound.

A multi-beam sonar used to detect fish up to 164 feet away from where the beam is being produced.

A test that uses high frequency sound waves (ultrasound) to detect a living thing.

An electronic device that increase the power of a signal.

Equipment being used.

A device used to measure strain on an object.

Sensor used to measure temperature.

Stretched out or extended.

Barracudas' swimming mode is accelerator specialists: they swim with moderate drag but maximized thrust when they almost "jump" out at their prey, which is locally available. Because of this, they are considered by fishermen to be like "lazy fish" for mostly sitting still in shady areas, waiting for prey to swim near them and pounce, rather than going to hunt.

Frontal; on the front.

Remodeling of muscle (atrophic response) as an adaptation to the reduced loads placed upon it; decrements occur in skeletal muscle strength, fatigue resistance, motor performance, and connective tissue integrity.

The amount by which a single measurement differs from a fixed value such as the mean.

Creating enough force to result in movement.

Relating to the study of hydrodynamics: a branch of physics that deals with the motion of fluids and the forces acting on solid bodies immersed in fluids and in motion relative to them.

An electromechanical device that measures acceleration forces affecting something. These forces can be all sorts of things such as the force of gravity pulling you down at your feet.

Possible to have or achieve.

Without a doubt.

Use of a accelerometer to quantify movement

Relating to, involving, or requiring an absence of free oxygen.

Of or relating to the open sea.

The rapid formation and collapse of vapor pockets in a flowing liquid in regions of very low pressure.

photosynthesis is the process in which plants use energy from the sun to transform carbon dioxide, water and minerals to oxygen and organic compounds

A perennial plant is one that persists for many growing seasons. Many will keep their leaves year round, while some may die back and re-grow from the same root system.

A constant liquid fertilizer is a water-soluble fertilizer that is added to irrigation water and applied to plants during watering times

The term substrate, in a agricultural science context, is a general term used when referring to the medium in which a plant/crop is grown.

A panicle is a flower cluster that typically grows at the end of a shoot or stem.

Soil-Plant Analysis Development refers to the method for estimating the chlorophyll content present in a plant leaf. This is typically accomplished using a handheld meter.

DAT is an acronym for days after treatment. This term is used in agronomy when keeping record of herbicide, fertilizer and pesticide treatments.

The Normalized Difference Vegetative Index is calculated using the visible and near-infrared light reflected by vegetation.

A controlled release fertilizer contains plant nutrients in a form that is not immediately available to the plant. A CRF provides the plant with nutrients for a longer period of time, throughout the growing season.

A topdressing refers to the process used to distribute fertilizer or manure to the surface layer of soil surrounding a crop.

A measure of peak sharpness for a distribution.

A measure of asymmetry, primarily describing some distribution by reference to the tails of the dataset. Left skewed data has a tail that leans to the left and right skewed data has a tail that leans to the right.

A set of numbers or observations.

A female organ that produces eggs.

An oocyte is an immature egg cell.

A disaccharide is two monosaccharides chemically linked together

Parasite moves through a homogeneous host population (of fruit fly cells in this case), attempting to occupy as many cells as possible.

Plural for locus, a particular place or point.

A baseline or standard that allows scientists to ensure that their manipulation of some variable, such as a food type in this experiment, actually has an observable effect that deviates from the baseline or standard.

The concentration of a solution, in this case, the concentration of Wolbachia bacteria in maternal germline cells.

A point within a cladogram (a branching diagram) that contains more than two descendants.

A tree diagram that demonstrates relationships between different species in their evolutionary track.

the branch of biology that studies structure, function, evolution, and mapping of genes.

"Stinginess". The best hypothesis in making phylogenetic trees is the one that calls for the fewest evolutionary changes throughout time.

Genetic detail from the same chromosome.

Unit of measure for a nucleic-acid chain. Equals 1,000 bases.

Mainly examined for prediction of gene function. Related through vertical descent from ancestors.

A DNA or RNA molecule that is brought up by three nucleotides forming together.

Taxonomic group of any level: species, class, etc.

A compound that forms the basic structural unit of a nucleic acid.

Similar, sharing something in common.

Data at present used to predict that of entire population. Usually completed by the extraction of data, probably randomly, and re-tested. Essentially, bootstrap resembles the confidence level in the values resulted. The results don't necessarily have to be correct, its a measure of certainty.

A constant that defines the function of a certain study.

A series of items or information linked together.

Branch of biology that deals with the evolutionary uniqueness of organisms.

Way in which big ideas or parts are connected or arranged to make sense.

Protein or DNA that have the same or similar sequencing due to their ancestry.

A model-based measurement utilized in data sets of phylogenetic comparative analysis made up of qualitative traits observed of species related to the same phylogenetic tree.

Hereditary information that offsprings receive from their parents which makes them unique.

The evolutionary track an organism has taken that sets it apart from the rest.

Unable to be stopped; unpreventable.

The new development of something of high value and/or importance.

Remove or dissipate such as by melting, vaporization, erosion, etc.

The tendency for the substance to evaporate.

An un-selective approach to the cell membrane function. DEET has a selective effect on the cell membrane function.

Lasting only for a short time.

Olfactory receptors are neurons that are responsible for the detection of odorants which allow the sense of smell. Olfactory receptors are one of three types of receptors used by mosquitos, the others include ionotropic receptors and gustatory receptors.

The response to an antennal stimulation in which an insect stick out their proboscis, or tongue.

A substance in certain that adversely affects insects or other animals that eat them.

Properties dependent on the chemical composition or structure of the material.

A measurable/numerical method to gather data.

RNA interference is a gene silencing mechanism that is triggered by the injection by introducing double stranded RNA into the cells.

Cues related to eating and the sense of taste.

An organic compound with a distinct earthy flavor and aroma produced by a type of Actinobacteria.

A type of genetic engineering in which DNA is inserted, deleted or replaced in the genome.

Macromolecular pores in the cell membrane that form an aqueous pathway. Allows rapid flow of cations based on their electrochemical driving force.

A molecule that binds to a central metal atom to form a complex.

Derived from a different organism.

Tiny openings in the membrane that allow specific ions to pass through.

An arthropod sensory organ that consists of a modified cell or small group of cells of the cuticle, typically hair- or rod-shaped cuticle.

A chemical substance emitted by an organism and detected by another of a different species that gains advantage from this.

A field of study that uses genetic methods to investigate nature and origins of behavior.

Early in the discovery/ knowledge of the DEET modulation of multiple olfactory receptors

determined

Melanin

THIS IS ME ANNOTATING.

This is me looking at my annotation as I annotate.

A tough outer protective layer.

DNA synthesized from single-stranded RNA.

.

A genetic disease affecting the growth of hair, teeth, nails, and sweat glands.

Caudal: pertaining to the tail

Spinal: pertaining to the spine

Cervical: pertaining to the neck

Ventral: pertaining to the underside or abdominal part of the body

Humeral: pertaining to the humerus (a bone in the arm)

Femoral: pertaining to the femur (a bone in the leg)

Because an RNA sequence is read three bases at a time, if the number of bases deleted is a multiple of three, it will not change the reading frame.

A thick, platelike structure in the ectoderm that is a site of development in early embryos.

Members of the order squamata, or scaled reptiles. They are the largest and most recent order of reptiles and comprise all lizards and snakes.

A thickening of the ectoderm marking a site of future development of hair follicles, feathers, or teeth in the early embryo.

A transitional fossil that shows a transitional form between one species and another.

A cell that secretes sebum, an oily substance that waterproofs and lubricates skin.

To change to a form that contains keratine, a fibrous protein found in hair, nails, and hooves.

Sections of tissue that are made in a cryostat, a device that keeps samples at a very low temperature to preserve them.

A group of signaling molecules responsible for coordinating development in many different parts of the body.

Exists today.

A study is referred to as experimental if it contains random allocation of participants to experimental conditions or treatments in which a variable of interest is manipulated. Such experiments can allow claims that the manipulation has caused changes in outcomes.

For example, if we wanted to study the influence of rewards during class on students’ biology exam scores in an experimental study, we would randomly assign students to two conditions: In condition 1, students would receive candy bars for active participation in class, whereas in condition 2, students would not receive any candy bars.

Then we would observe the exam scores for each group of students, to judge if our candy-bar treatment improved the scores compared to the no-candy-bar control condition. We could then conclude if rewards cause better exam scores in this context.

A technique that allows a gene to be shut down and made nonfunctional. Researchers knock out genes to see what happens when they aren't active.

Plastic debris is plastic waste that has accidentally or deliberately been released into the marine or terrestrial environment.

Waste management is the set of systems required to manage waste from when it is created to when it is finally disposed of. Steps of waste management include collection, transport, treatment, and disposal.

Plastic resin beads are the raw materials from which items such as plastic water bottles are made.

In this context, persistence means that the plastic materials are very stable and resistant to degradation.

Mitigation is an action that reduces the severity or seriousness of a problem.

Extrapolation is the process of extending a graph or range of values by predicting unknown values from trends in the known data.

Who or what should be blamed when something happens?

Protect the driver at all costs

A temperate biome that is slightly warmer than the global average, marked by distinct seasons, sometimes with dry or rainy seasons. The forests are, as the name implies, of mixed composition. In this particular biome the predominant trees are broadleaf (ex: maple or oak) and conifers (ex: pine).

A biome found in temperate regions with warm summers, cool winters, and enough precipitation to support coniferous trees ("evergreens").

Shrubs and plants that have adapted to survive in locations with very low amounts of liquid water, including deserts as well as regions with ice and snow.

People receive a wide range of benefits from the environment, and these benefits are sometimes referred to as "ecosystem services."

The lowercase of the Greek letter sigma is used to indicate standard deviation. Here's a short video explanation: https://www.youtube.com/embed/MRqtXL2WX2M

These scenarios are different models of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. Descriptions of each model can be found in a special issue of Climate Change from November 2011: https://link.springer.com/journal/10584/109/1/page/1

An agreement under the UNFCCC framework addressing three main aims:

• lessening greenhouse gas emissions,
• preparing for and negating the effects of climate change, and
• financing dedicated to accomplish the previous two aims.

Under the agreement, countries set targets to lessen global warming, develop plans to meet those targets, and report on their progress.

The agreement was negotiated in Paris at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in December 2015 and adopted in 2016.

Pollen grains are made of materials that are highly resistant to breaking down in the environment, so they can be found in sediments going back thousands of years (and even further in the fossil record). The grains are diverse and researchers can identify the plant types they come from by examining them under a microscope. This allows researchers to see which seed-baring plants were in a given location in the past by taking sediment core samples and examining the pollen grains in each layer. The deeper the layer, the older the layer.

The geographic area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. There are many different sets of boundaries for this region used by researchers, historians, and others. For this paper, the authors use the region between longitudes 10°W to 45°E and latitudes 28°N to 48°N. The region can be seen in Figure 3, and an approximate map of the region is included here.

Tooth fused to the inner edge of the jaw. They are loosely attached and can regenerate if lost.

Part of the limb farthest from the body, such as the hand or foot.

The scaleless bearded dragons have two copies of the same alleles (Sca). This gene is codominant, meaning both alleles are expressed even in heterozygotes.

Placed on top of one another.

The use of antibodies to detect specific proteins in a tissue (using the principle that antibodies will selectively bind to certain antigens).

A subset of a larger population.

Analysis of the structure of a tissue.

Pronounced "neo-NICK-uh-tin-oid." A large family of pesticides that is currently the most widely used type of pesticide in the world, for both commercial and home use. The "nicotin" refers to the biochemical similarities between these pesticides and nicotine, which itself evolved in plants as an herbivore repellent. Both chemicals work by affecting the nervous system and, in toxic doses, cause paralysis and death.

A simple organ associated with the pineal gland in some animals and responsible for regulating circadian cycles.

The process of how a single stranded DNA form hydrogen bonds with other complementary DNA strands to make double stranded DNA.Often used in the PCR steps of creating or mass producing certain DNA sequences. (EM)

Heterospecific is used to classify organisms. "Hetero" means differ, and "specific" pertains to a particular subject/concept. Heterospecific means organisms that aren't the same species. ~J.D.A.

Conspecific is also like heterospecific as it pertains to classifying species. In the sentence it seems to be an opposing word to heterospecific. If heterospecific means organisms of differ species, then conspecfics must mean the opposite--must mean organisms of same species. ~J.D.A.

Parsimony analysis deals with simplicity. In regards to science, there will be various explanations to certain phenomenon. According to parsimony analysis, the simplest explanation is the best one. ~J.D.A.