EN: Electric current is the rate at which electric charge flows through a conductor. - Unit: ampere (A). - Current in a circuit is associated with energy transfer; devices transform electrical energy into other forms.

中文：电流是电荷通过导体的流动速率。 - 单位：安培（A）。 - 电路中的电流对应能量的传递，用电器把电能转化为其他形式。

EN: Mass is the amount of matter in an object and a measure of its inertia (resistance to changes in motion). - Unit: kilogram (kg). - In this Topic, mass affects both KE (1/2 mv^2) and GPE (m g Δh) linearly.

中文：质量表示物体所含物质的多少，也是惯性大小的量度（抗拒运动状态改变的能力）。 - 单位：千克（kg）。 - 在本主题中，质量会线性影响动能（1/2 mv^2）和重力势能（m g Δh）。

EN: Acceleration due to gravity (g) near Earth is about 9.8 m/s^2. - It is the acceleration of a freely falling object (ignoring air resistance). - g is used in gravitational potential energy: GPE = m g Δh.

中文：近地面重力加速度 g ≈ 9.8 m/s^2。 - 忽略空气阻力时，自由落体的加速度约为 g。 - 在重力势能公式中使用：GPE = m g Δh。

EN: Change in height (Δh) is the difference between final and initial height. - It tells how much gravitational potential energy changes: ΔGPE = m g Δh. - Δh depends on the chosen reference level and can be positive or negative.

中文：高度变化（Δh）是末高度与初高度之差。 - 它决定重力势能的变化：ΔGPE = m g Δh。 - Δh 与所选参考高度有关，可为正也可为负。

EN: Velocity is speed with direction (a vector). - Unit: metres per second (m/s). - Because KE ∝ v^2, doubling velocity makes kinetic energy 4 times larger (if mass is the same).

中文：速度（velocity）是带方向的速率（矢量）。 - 单位：米每秒（m/s）。 - 因为动能与 v^2 成正比，同质量时速度加倍，动能会变为 4 倍。

EN: A kilojoule (kJ) is 1000 joules. - We often use kJ because the joule is a small unit in everyday situations.

中文：千焦（kJ）= 1000 焦耳（J）。 - 由于焦耳较小，生活和化学/食品能量等常用千焦表示。

EN: The joule (J) is the SI unit of energy. - 1 J = 1 N·m = 1 kg·m^2/s^2. - Rough sense of scale: lifting a 0.10 kg object by 1 m requires about 1 J of gravitational potential energy.

中文：焦耳（J）是能量的国际单位。 - 1 J = 1 N·m = 1 kg·m^2/s^2。 - 直观尺度：把约 0.10 kg 的物体抬高 1 m，大约需要 1 J 的重力势能。

EN: Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than visible violet light. - UV photons have relatively high energy and can cause chemical changes (e.g., sunburn).

中文：紫外线（UV）是波长比紫光更短的电磁辐射。 - 紫外光子能量较高，可能引起化学变化（如晒伤）。

EN: An energy transformation is efficient if a large fraction of the input energy becomes useful output. - Efficiency = (useful output energy) / (input energy) × 100%. - Real systems are never 100% efficient because some energy becomes unwanted thermal/sound energy due to friction and resistance.

中文：能量转化“高效”表示输入能量中有较大比例变成了有用的输出。 - 效率 = 有用输出能量 / 输入能量 × 100%。 - 真实系统不可能 100% 高效，因为摩擦/电阻等会使部分能量转为不想要的热能/声能。

EN: Friction is a force that opposes motion between surfaces (or through air/water). - Friction converts mechanical energy into less useful forms, mainly thermal energy (and sometimes sound). - This is why motion usually slows down without additional energy input.

中文：摩擦力是阻碍相对运动的力（包括表面摩擦和空气/水阻力）。 - 摩擦会把机械能转化为较难利用的热能（有时还有声能）。 - 因此没有持续能量输入时，运动往往会逐渐减慢。

EN: Sound energy is energy carried by vibrations (mechanical waves) traveling through matter. - Sound requires a medium (air, water, solids) and cannot travel through a vacuum. - When absorbed, sound energy often transforms into thermal energy.

中文：声能是由振动产生并通过介质传播的机械波所携带的能量。 - 声音需要介质（空气/水/固体），真空中不能传播。 - 被吸收后通常转化为热能。

EN: Radiant energy is energy carried by electromagnetic radiation (waves/photons). - It includes visible light, infrared, and ultraviolet. - When absorbed by matter, radiant energy often transforms into thermal energy.

中文：辐射能是由电磁辐射（电磁波/光子）携带的能量。 - 包括可见光、红外线、紫外线等。 - 被物质吸收后常转化为热能。

EN: Infrared is electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer than visible red light. - It is often experienced as warmth because absorbing infrared increases thermal energy.

中文：红外线是波长比红光更长的电磁辐射。 - 常被感受到“热”，因为吸收红外线会增加物体的热能。

EN: Nuclear energy is energy stored in atomic nuclei. - It can be released by fission, fusion, or radioactive decay. - Nuclear energy has a very high energy density compared with chemical energy.

中文：核能是储存在原子核中的能量。 - 可通过核裂变、核聚变或放射性衰变释放。 - 相比化学能，核能的能量密度非常高。

EN: Magnetic potential energy is stored due to the position/orientation of magnets in a magnetic field. - If released, this stored energy can transform into kinetic energy as objects move.

中文：磁势能是由磁体在磁场中的位置/方向而储存的能量。 - 释放后可转化为动能，使物体发生运动。

EN: Heat is thermal energy that is transferred from a warmer object to a cooler one because of a temperature difference. - Heat is energy in transit (not a substance stored inside an object). - Unit: joule (J).

中文：热量是由于温度差从高温物体传递到低温物体的热能。 - 热量强调“传递中的能量”，不是物体内部的一种“物质”。 - 单位：焦耳（J）。

EN: Thermal energy is the total kinetic energy of the particles in matter (microscopic motion). - Generally, higher temperature means greater average particle kinetic energy. - Thermal energy can be transferred as heat when there is a temperature difference.

中文：热能（更准确地说是与温度有关的内能部分）来自物质内部粒子的微观运动动能总和。 - 温度越高，粒子平均动能越大。 - 有温差时，热能会以“热量”的形式传递。

EN: Electrical potential energy is stored energy due to separated electric charges (electric potential difference/voltage). - A battery stores electrical potential energy and can transfer it to a circuit. - In a circuit it can transform into other forms (light, thermal, sound, motion).

中文：电势能是由于电荷分离而储存的能量（与电势差/电压有关）。 - 电池储存电势能，并可把能量传递到电路中。 - 在电路中可转化为光、热、声或机械运动等其他形式。

EN: Electrical kinetic energy refers to the energy associated with moving electric charges (electric current). - When charges move through a device, the energy can transform into light, heat, or motion.

中文：电荷运动（电流）所携带的能量可理解为“电的动能”。 - 电流通过用电器时，能量可以转化为光、热或机械运动等。

EN: Chemical potential energy is stored in chemical bonds. - Fuels, food, and batteries store chemical potential energy. - During chemical reactions it can transform into thermal, radiant (light), electrical, and mechanical energy.

中文：化学势能是储存在化学键中的能量。 - 燃料、食物、电池都储存化学势能。 - 化学反应中它可转化为热能、光（辐射）能、电能、机械能等。

EN: Gravitational potential energy (GPE) is energy stored because of height in a gravitational field. - It depends on mass, gravitational field strength (g), and change in height. - Near Earth: GPE = m g Δh (relative to a chosen reference level).

中文：重力势能（GPE）是物体由于处在重力场中的高度而具有的能量。 - 与质量、重力加速度 g，以及高度变化 Δh 有关。 - 近地面常用：GPE = m g Δh（相对于所选参考高度）。

EN: Mechanical kinetic energy is the kinetic energy of the motion of objects (macroscopic motion you can observe). - It depends on mass and velocity: KE = 1/2 mv^2. - It is different from thermal energy, which is microscopic particle motion.

中文：机械动能（机械运动的动能）是可观察到的物体整体运动所具有的动能。 - 与质量和速度有关：KE = 1/2 mv^2。 - 它不同于热能；热能来自微观粒子的无规则运动。

EN: Energy is the ability to cause change in a system or do work. - Energy appears in different forms (mechanical, thermal, chemical, electrical, radiant, etc.). - Energy can be transferred between a system and its surroundings, or transformed from one form to another. - The SI unit of energy is the joule (J).

中文：能量是使系统发生变化或对物体做功的能力。 - 能量有多种形式（机械、热、化学、电、辐射等）。 - 能量既可以在系统与环境之间传递，也可以在不同形式之间转化。 - 能量的国际单位是焦耳（J）。

EN: A system is the part of the universe you choose to study (the object(s) under observation). - The system boundary is defined by you, depending on the question you are trying to answer. - Energy can enter/leave the system, so tracking the system helps you describe energy transfers.

中文：系统是你选择研究的那一部分宇宙（被观察/被分析的对象或对象集合）。 - 系统边界由研究者根据问题来定义，可大可小。 - 能量可以在系统与环境之间传递，因此先定义系统有助于分析能量变化。

EN: Potential energy is stored energy due to position or configuration. - It can be transformed into kinetic energy and other forms. - Examples include gravitational, chemical, electrical, and magnetic potential energy.

中文：势能是由于位置或结构/状态而“储存”的能量。 - 势能可以转化为动能以及其他形式的能量。 - 常见类型：重力势能、化学势能、电势能、磁势能等。

EN: Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Anything that is moving has kinetic energy. - For a moving object, kinetic energy depends on mass and velocity. - In many Grade-10 problems: KE = 1/2 mv^2 (always ≥ 0).

中文：动能是由于运动而具有的能量，任何在运动的物体都有动能。 - 动能与质量和速度有关。 - 常用公式：KE = 1/2 mv^2（动能一定是非负的）。

EN: The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. - Total energy stays constant in an isolated system. - What changes is the form of energy and where it is (system vs. surroundings). - Some transformed energy becomes less useful (often as thermal energy and sound) due to friction and other processes.

中文：能量守恒定律：能量不会凭空产生，也不会凭空消失。 - 对于孤立系统，总能量保持不变。 - 改变的是能量的形式以及能量所在的位置（系统或环境）。 - 由于摩擦等原因，部分能量会转化为较难利用的热能/声能，但总量仍守恒。

EN: The surroundings are everything outside the system boundary. - Surroundings can interact with the system by transferring energy (and sometimes matter). - In many problems, you only include the nearby surroundings that actually interact.

中文：环境（周围环境）是系统边界之外的所有事物。 - 环境可以通过能量（有时也包括物质）与系统发生相互作用。 - 解题时通常只考虑与系统有实际相互作用的那部分环境。

Starting from so-called 'Headless UI components' seems to me a 'no-brainer' especially when tools like ShadCN is not only built on top of tech that Agentic dev tools are familiar with, ShadCN itself is also something Agents (in my experience) are well versed in.

positively charged reactive intermediate in a reaction, with carbon atom with only six valence electrons in its valence shell

Acyl groups attached to the nitrogen atom are derived from non-aromatic carbon chains

a free radical mechanism by which bromine is introduced under conditions of heat or light

A C-H bond located on a carbon directly attached to a benzene ring

a carbon atom that has four different groups connected to it

a carbon atom that is connected to three other carbon atoms and a hydrogen atom

a -CH2 carbon

Usually involves a photoredox catalyst, a transition metal catalyst, visible or UV light source and polar aprotic solvents.

These conditions are palladium catalysts, strong bases, polar aprotic solvents and elevated temperatures.

A reaction that extends the carbon chain of a molecule

A reaction that introduces a vinyl group into a molecule

A chemical reaction where aryl group is introduced in a molecule

A reaction that introduces halogen(s) into a molecule

A reaction that introduces an amino group into a molecule

A reaction that involves loss of electrons

A carbon-hydrogen bond in a cyclohexane ring that is parallel to the ring axis, pointing straight up or down.

A reaction that preferentially forms a diastereomer over others

Derived from ammonia, in which one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by alkyl or acyl groups

An organic compound formed by the reaction of an alcohol with carbamic acid

saturated hydrocarbon with a straight chain structure

A chemical reaction in which a single reactant is simultaneously oxidized and reduced, forming two different products with distinct oxidation states.

Chemical groups where an alkyl chain is attached to a boronate functional group

A chemical reaction in which the reaction rate is directly proportional to the concentration of a single reactant.

cycloalkane with eight carbons

cycloalkane with six carbons

saturated hydrocarbons with carbon atoms arranged in a ring structure

A linear alkane hydrocarbon with 12 carbon atoms

A solvent that does not react with any reactant or product and functions only as medium for the reaction to occur.

Refers to a location on a molecule that is farthest from a reference point

A molecule that binds to a central metal atom, by donating one or more electrons through coordinate covalent bonds

Two positions away from the reference point

cyclic compounds consisting of carbon atoms

specific group of atoms in an organic compound that are responsible for the compound's physical and chemical properties

an organic compound where boron is bonded to two alkoxy groups.

Hindrance to movement and/or chemical reaction of a molecule due to the position of bulky groups

A reactive neutral intermediate

omega position refers to the terminal position, the farthest position from the reference point.

An atom or a functional group that withdraws electron density from the rest of the molecule.

Restriction to movement or a chemical reaction caused by spatial arrangement of bulky groups.

An organic compound when two equivalents of alcohol reacts with an aldehyde

An organic compound where two carbonyl groups are bonded to a single nitrogen atom.

A five membered aromatic heterocycle

A C-H bond located on the benzene ring, at a position that is two carbons away from a reference substituent.

An aromatic compound consisting of a benzene ring with two isopropyl groups at 1 and 4 positions.

Aromatic compounds in which one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by alkyl groups.

An organic compound formed when a ketone reacts with two equivalents of an alcohol.

A reactive species formed by removing one hydrogen atom from an alkane

Position of a carbon atom adjacent to a heteroatom

Negatively charged hydrogen atom

Biological catalyst

A chemical substance that speeds up a reaction.

A functional group derived from an aromatic ring

A hydrogen atom attached to a secondary carbon, which is a carbon connected to two other carbon atoms. A hydrogen atom attached to a tertiary carbon, which is a carbon connected to three other carbon atoms.

A hydrogen atom attached to a primary carbon, which is a carbon connected to only one other carbon.

Position of a carbon atom that is adjacent to a carbon-carbon double bond

Position of a carbon atom that is directly attached to a benzene ring

An atom in an organic molecule other than carbon and hydrogen

A reactant that is first completely consumed in a reaction, thereby, limiting the amount of product formed.

A term used to describe the attachment of a ligand to a metal center.

The component present in larger amount and serves as the medium for the chemical reaction to occur.

A compound that undergoes a chemical reaction.

A chemical reaction that involves the introduction of a boron containing group into an organic molecule.

convergent thinking refers to working through proposed ideas and finding the best option; divergent thinking refers to throwing any and all ideas to the wall to see what sticks.

refers to the movement to consider broader impacts of design work on the world; to redefine design as an active and investigative process that addresses social issues and reflects both personal and cultural contexts.

Critical Fabulations

refers to how social theories and scientific approaches can enhance one another, leading to a more nuanced understanding of both.

Posthumanist Performativity: Toward an Understanding of How Matter Comes to Matter

related to how connections and dependencies between people shift over time due to changes in social structures, contexts change; also see Thiele, K. Figuration.

Springer Reference

the study of knowledge; a matter of understanding what knowledge is, and how to distinguish between cases in which someone knows something and cases in which someone doesn't know something. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

to generate new ideas, make associations, combine concepts in relation to ideation activities.

to engage with physical knowledge gained through experience and the material world around us.

loosely organized approach to the study of knowledge stemming from feminist theory about gender and traditional epistemology (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy); here, the author utilizes this framework as a tool to challenge common assumptions that knowledge, or definitions of creativity, are entirely objective, as social factors like gender, race, and class tend to inform who is seen as a "knower".

one's perception and interpretation of their own (or others') attributes or behavior.

APA Dictionary of Psychology

refers to pluralism; the idea that any one thing has many facets, causes, or meanings.

APA Dictionary of Psychology

pertaining to a particular standard of comparison for a person or group of people, especially when thinking of cultural ideas.

APA Dictionary of Psychology

there are many tensions, or issues, that come up when technology intersects with politics in the creative field; in doing this research, the authors hope to bring clarity or understanding to the intersection;

in this context, political dimensions refer to the ways societal norms and power impact creative technology.

it should be noted that feminist values is a broad topic; in this context, the author refers to the feminist school of thought that knowledge is not universal, objective, value-free, or context-independent; knowledge is influenced by what one wants, cares about, and believes.

deep understanding of a particular subject, including complexities and nuances.

system of naming things in a particular field

to perform creative tasks as mediated by tools in which you can develop expertise, e.g graphic design.

for - Brehon Laws - of early Ireland - etymology - glossary - reading between the lines - adjacency - Brehon Laws - Indyweb - reading between the lines - glossary

adjacency - between - Brehon Laws - Indyweb - reading between the lines - etymology - glossary - adjacency relationship - Brehon Laws of early Ireland emerged from the people themselves over many generations - and were not imposed by some authority - For a long time, these laws were orally transmitted and memorized - When writing emerged, the style of writing used by the early Irish was to write with many gaps in between written verses of text - for the purpose of readers to be able to be writers and contribute to the text with their own perspectives - In other words, they were early annotators! - The etymology of the world glossary comes from "gloss" from the practice of writing meaning between the lines - "Glosses were common in the Middle Ages, usually rendering Hebrew, Greek, or Latin words into vernacular Germanic, Celtic, or Romanic. Originally written between the lines, later in the margins." ( https://www.etymonline.com/word/glossary)

source - Zoom meeting this evening with Paul and Trace, as Paul introduced from his understanding of his Irish roots

Referring to a targeted space over a period of time. In the context of the study, it emphasizes the importance of both the timing and location of nerve cooling for managing neuropathic pain.

Spared nerve injury is a type of nerve injury model used in research to simulate neuropathic pain conditions. Two of the three sciatic nerves are specifically targeted and injured (peroneal and tibial nerves), while the third nerve, the sural nerve, remains intact. This allows researchers to study neuropathic pain mechanisms and test potential treatments in animals.

Combined electrical activity generated by a group of nerve fibers when they are stimulated together.

Describes the sharp temperature contrast between the actively cooled regions of the cuff, which directly contact the nerve tissue, and the passive regions that do not. This indicates effective localized cooling, with the actively cooled areas being significantly cooler than the passive ones.

Other or opposite side of the body.

Tests simulated to study the animal's mechanical responses of the nervous system from painful stimuli.

It refers to the uniform formation of vapor bubbles within the liquid form of PFP, leading to the phase transition from liquid to vapor.

PFP is used as the gas phase that helps to spray the medication out of the inhaler when it is pressed.

Refers to the shape, structure, form and size of a bacterial cell. Here it is important for the function and behavior of a bacterial cell, as it affects how they grow, reproduce, obtain nutrients, and move.

A microchemostat is a type of bioreactor that maintains a continuous culture of microorganisms under controlled conditions. This was used throughout the experiment and allowed the authors to study the microbial populations and their dynamics in a controlled environment.

Sterile medium is a growth medium which is free of all life forms. This was used to measure cell growth from zero cell growth.

Biofilm formation is the process by which microorganisms attach to a surface and create a community. Here, bacterial cell is transition from planktonic (free-swimming) to the biofilm mode of growth, using innovative microfluidic techniques.

Mutation rate is defined as the frequency of new mutations occurring in a single gene of bacteria over time. Here, mutation rates influence bacterial responses to challenges, including host immune defenses and antibiotic treatments.

The dilution rate represents the flow of medium per unit of time over the volume of culture in the bioreactor. Here, it is a key controlling factor that determines the concentration of nutrients in the culture medium.

Synthetic promoters act as genetic switches, allowing precise manipulation of bacterial behavior through of control gene expression. Here, the authors used synthetic promoters to build a population-control circuit in bacteria, enabling precise regulation of cell density through quorum sensing mechanisms.

The variability in observable characteristics among individual bacterial cells that contribute to the overall regulation and behavior of the bacterial population.

A lysis buffer is a solution used to break open bacterial cells and release their contents, particularly for extracting genetic material for various laboratory analyses. Here, they use it to get rid of all cells within the segment.

In a chemostat, fresh medium periodically replaces a portion of the bacterial culture, removing some bacteria. However, if biofilms develop, they protect bacteria from washout, leading to domination of the culture by biofilm-derived bacteria over time.

Sustained oscillations is a phenomenon where bacterial populations exhibit repetitive fluctuations in their growth rate over time. Understanding sustained oscillations in bacterial populations helps authors/researchers to connect morphology of individual cells to population-level changes.

AKA E. Coli. A species of bacteria that is commonly used in research due to its well-studied genetics and ease of cultivation.

Synthetic circuit is engineered genetic circuits to manipulate bacterial populations. These circuits enable cells to perform specific functions, sense their environment, regulate gene expression, and coordinate with other cells.

Medical treatment that cools the body temperature of a patient for a specific period of time. It is used in certain types of brain injury to help reduce the risk of brain damage.

A sensor for measuring temperature.

Surgical stitches that close and hold a wound together while it heals

Characteristic of a material that has elastic properties and can reform original shape after removing applied forces.

Transplant of nerve tissue to help repair damaged nerves.

Referring to time or timing of events.

Refers to a large-scale or bulk experiment conducted to study the long-term dynamics of bacterial populations that are undergoing programmed population control in a microchemostat.

A peristaltic pump can be used to transfer liquids, such as nutrients, media, or other fluids into the bioreactor vessel without exposing the fluid to the pump components. This approach is essential for preserving a sterile and controlled environment, which is crucial for the biological processes taking place within the bioreactor.

The offspring or descendants produced by bacterial cells through the process of reproduction.

A microbial biofilm is a complex and organized community of bacteria that adhere to a surface and are surrounded by a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substances.

A process of cell–cell communication that allows bacteria to share information about cell density and adjust gene expression accordingly.

Bacterial growth medium which provides the necessary nutrients for the cultivation of bacteria in laboratory conditions, facilitating their growth and enabling researchers to conduct experiments.

Chemostats are continuously operated bioreactors where growing cells reach a steady state condition at which specific growth rate, as well as biomass, substrate and the product concentrations remain constant.

A microfluidic bioreactor is a device designed for the cultivation and study of bacteria cells in a controlled and tiny fluidic environment. It allows researchers to studying cellular behavior in conditions that closely mimic the natural environment.

Surgery that is performed on the spine to relieve compressed nerves and reduce pressure on the spine and nerves. More space is created through this surgery to allow better movement of the nerves and help relieve pain.

Pain that is experienced immediately after surgery and can last up to a week.

Loss of sensitivity to pain in a specified area.

This refers to any nerve in the peripheral nervous system, which is comprised of the nerves in the body that branch out from the brain and spinal cord.

Meaning the drug or substance is not an opioid and contains no opioids.

Type of opioid that contains natural substances extracted from poppy plants. They are referred to as the natural opioids.

These are a class of drugs prescribed to treat severe pain.

Relating to medical procedures that involve cutting into the body and doing procedures typically deeper than surface level.

The capability of being absorbed or degraded into the body over time after it has been implanted.

Referring to an item that can be surgically put into and function within the body.

A term referring to drugs that are used to relieve pain.

這個臉書專頁「法務看英文」，我早已加入favorite書籤，果真是「乾貨」滿滿，含金量高，每篇都有垂手可得的精準雙語詞彙和文脈。

Z世代用語

Z世代用語

Atg8 protein is a marker protein to observe autophagosome formation. When Atg8 protein engineered with the red florescence protein (RFP), RFP-Atg8, RFP-Atg8 protein will be conjugated to the lipids and enable the membrane fusion to localize on the autophagosome.

Pep4, a vacuolar protease required for function of multiple hydrolases, is required for autophagic cargo degradation

Bulk autophagy also called non-selective macroautophagy. During bulk autophagy, autophagosomes fuse with lysosomes or vacuoles resulting in the degradation of the cargo.

While during selective autophagy, the cargo is distinguished (mitochondria, ER, ribosomes, peroxisomes and etc.) and recognized by specific cargo receptors, or selective autophagy receptors, to connect with the autophagosome for degradation.

Here are two videos for more an explanation: 1) The mechanism of autophagy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gc9gx33GvF0&t=2s

2) Self-Eating Cell Research Wins Nobel in Medicine: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ws0mOmfC9EU

Misfolded protein are retained in the ER and subjected for proteosomal degradation which occurs in the cytosol.

Learning from the youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fEEbyYjXNUU&t=1s

When newly synthesized protein is not properly folded into their correct orientation in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the ER now is under the stress to degrade the misfolded protein. To degrade the misfolded proteins and maintain the ER homeostasis, the cellular signaling will turn on the unfolded protein response to help the cell deals with problematic proteins for recycle and degradation.

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vy4m-fUOn9o

Genes are commonly generate isoforms from the same locus to produce different mRNA and thus give rise to different length of amino acid with similar protein functions.

Lst1 and SEC24C, are homologous gene in yeast and mammalian respectively. The protein or DNA sequence of these genes, Lst1 and SEC24C, are highly similar and evolutionary share the common ancestor, termed as homolog.

ER is a transportation system of the eukaryotic cell composed of network of tubules and sheet-like area adjacent with the nuclear envelope and stretches out to the cell periphery.

Learning corner with video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gc9gx33GvF0&t=2s glossary

A series of interconnected protein and carbohydrate networks that surround and support cells in 3 dimensions. The ECM is also a highway of biological signals for cells, often carrying the information needed to begin cell differentiation

Immune response when tissues react to foreign materials (like silica) and become damaged and swollen

Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), is an inflammatory cytokine produced by macrophages/monocytes during acute inflammation and is responsible for a diverse range of signalling events within cells. When a person sustains an injury or experiences bacterial or viral infections, TNF-aplha creates inflammation to protect the area and allow it to heal. TNF alpha does this by triggering the production of several immune system molecules.

ECM refers to Extracellular Matrix, connective tissues used for (but not limited to) anchoring cells. Here, the authors used Fibronectin ( that helps connect cells to the ECM) and Collagen (that is the main structural proteins in connective tissue) to help culture cells on both sides of the thin polymeric membrane.

The most common type of white blood cell in humans (40-70%), whose function varies between animal to animal. In humans they are the first responders to combat the intruder while signaling to other immune cells for more help.

An unstable molecule containing oxygen that easily reacts to other cell molecules and can be toxic.

Nanoscopic fluorescent particles used to track and quantify membrane stretching

To cause, or to undergo retrotranslocation.

Retrotranslocation is the reverse process of translocation.

Translocation is a transfer of a chromosomal segment to a new position, especially on a nonhomologous chromosome; the segment so transferred.

Vesicles are compartments formed by a lipid bilayer separating its contents from the cytoplasm or a fluid-based extracellular environment. They can contain either liquids or gases and have a wide range of functions in cells across the living world from regulating buoyancy to secreting hormones.

The word ‘vesicle’ derives from the Latin word vesicula meaning ‘small bladder’

"Demure" means reserved, modest, and shy.

"Ensnared" means trapped. Here, Prose writes that because the concept of "beauty" is so complex and difficult to define, many academics and artists agree not to use the word. I think one could also argue that the word's meaning is so vast and overarching that it has little to no communicative value. What is yall's opinion on the word "beauty"? Do you think it can be adequately defined? If so, how would you define it?

ICAM-1 is a special glycoprotein found on the surface of endothelial cells. ICAM-1 directly contributes to inflammatory responses within the blood vessel wall by increasing endothelial cell activation. ICAM-1 basically calls the immune cells to the rescue!

drawing in breath/ breathing in

White blood cells that help you fight infections when exposed to a sickness. Helper T cells that recognize pathogens and help organize the immune response, neutrophils that chew up bacteria, and monocytes (macrophages) that recycle old cells and engulf pathogens are some examples

Referring to the ability of the alveolar cell monolayers to selectively accept/retain nutrients and reject/eject wastes in the lungs

Referring to the mimicked inhaling and exhaling of the lungs over long periods of time. The human lungs experience 672,768,000+ breaths in a lifetime and can regenerate themselves as you age. The lung-on-a-chip must be able to handle the tissue stretching associated with normal breathing if it is to be considered a true "biomimicked lung device"

Small particles of silicon dioxide, which when inhaled can cause pulmonary damage and even lung cancer

Deformation of a body caused by an outside force in one direction.

This phrase, when translated into English, means "Talk to me in Spanish."

In English, this phrase would be translated as "calm down, calm down."

Atg8 protein is a marker protein to observe autophagosome formation. When Atg8 protein engineered with the red florescence protein (RFP), RFP-Atg8, RFP-Atg8 protein will be conjugated to the lipids and enable the membrane fusion to localize on the autophagosome.