The energy in the hydrogen bonds between solute molecules and water is no longer available to do work in the system because it is tied up in the bond. In other words, the amount of available potential energy is reduced when solutes are added to an aqueous system.
Because the energy in the bond is tied up, it cannot do anything else (heat up the water, dissolve more solute, etc). This is why potential decreases as solute increases.
When this happens, water moves to equilibrate, moving from the system or compartment with a higher water potential to the system or compartment with a lower water potential.
Because we know the baseline, all water potential values will be positive or negative.
The potential of pure water (Ψwpure H2O) is, by convenience of definition, designated a value of zero
You can think about this as a baseline. If pure water's potential is zero, any movement due to osmosis is attributed to the presence of solutes.
water potential is the difference in potential energy between a given water sample and pure water
Our system was a cell in a solution. Water moves based on differences in potential energy.
Cholesterol
Review: which class of molecule is this? How can you identify it visually?
a very fine needle can easily penetrate a plasma membrane without causing it to burst
Essentially, the needle has a small enough diameter that it can "push" the phospholipids aside without causing enough damage to rupture the membrane.
it allows the immune system to differentiate between body cells (called “self”) and foreign cells or tissues (called “non-self”
"Autoimmune disorders" like rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and celiac disease are caused by your immune system not recognizing the "self" of your body cells.
They are always found on the exterior surface of cells and are bound either to proteins (forming glycoproteins) or to lipids (forming glycolipids
This is important!
and their hydrophobic membrane-spanning regions interact with the hydrophobic region of the the phospholipid bilayer
Again, think back to what you know about protein structure. Different regions of the molecule, because of the amino acid sequence and initial folding (1st, 2nd degree) causes the protein to fold (3rd degree) in a specific pattern with specific qualities.
which has no charge
Why do fatty acids tend to be nonpolar in general? Think about the chemical structure!
both inside and outside the cell
It's a phospholipid bilayer.
amphiphilic
amphiphilic means it has a two-sided nature.
Cells exclude some substances, take in others, and excrete still others, all in controlled quantities
Colloquially, "How to separate inside from outside without starving."
Any time the words “significant” or “non-significant” are used.
These terms are always backed up by a statistical test, not just intuition.
but you also have to take notes
The density of information in research is so high that annotation becomes a very important skill.
I mean literally draw it. Include as much detail as you need to fully understand the work.
Multiple modes of interaction with text can help form deeper understanding of the material.
Mitotic spindles are microtubule-based structures that separate chromosomes during mitosis. In most animals and fungal cells, spindle microtubules nucleate from centrosomes or spindle pole bodies. Plant cells lack such structured microtubule organizing centers, and some of their microtubules appear to nucleate from near the nuclear envelope, but very little is known about spindle formation in plants (reviewed in Bannigan et al., 2008). Vos et al. (pp. 2783–2797) provide evidence that, despite their differences, plant mitotic spindles could form via similar molecular mechanisms to those found in animals.
Remember, in chromosome segregation, spindle fibers are created and organized by centrosomes in animal cells only. Plant cells lack centrosomes and the mechanism for spindle formations is not well understood.
lead to mutations that may be passed forward to every new cell
Is this always a bad thing? Why or why not?
the death of a nearby cell
Why would a cell be interested in dividing when it's neighbor dies?
Regulation of the Cell Cycle by External Events
Remember, everything that happens in the cell is regulated at multiple levels.
is pulled rapidly toward the centrosome
Why is it pulled quickly?
At this time, the chromosomes are maximally condensed.
Why is having the chromosomes highly condensed advantageous?
karyokinesis
karyo = "seed" (Greek, nucleus), kinesis = "movement."
cytoskeleton
This is one of the most interesting parts of cell structure. It isn't like a water balloon, with no structure. It is filled with a network of microtubules which provide structural support to every part of the cell.
During interphase, the cell grows and DNA is replicated.
This is chapters 15 and 16. Cross reference!
two identical (clone) cells
This is an asexual reproductive pattern for our somatic cells.
Eukaryotic Chromosomal Structure and Compaction
This is good review. Look back over your notes from the molecular genetics work we did back before break.
natural variation found within a species.
Why is this important in terms of the long-term survivability of a species?
Homologous chromosomes are the same length and have specific nucleotide segments called genes in exactly the same location, or locus.
These copies of genes on homologous chromosomes are alleles.
A typical body cell, or somatic cell, contains two matched sets of chromosomes, a configuration known as diploid.
"ploidy" refers to the number of sets of chromosomes in a cell. Humans have 23 sets for 46 total chromosomes. Because they're in pairs, we are diploid.
There are other organisms that are triploid (three of each type) and even polyploidy (many).
When more than two genes are being considered, the Punnett-square method becomes unwieldy
The area of the square is exponential, so it grows very quickly.
recessive X-linked traits appear more frequently in males than females.
This is a clue for when you're determining the inheritance pattern of a particular trait!
When a female parent is homozygous for a recessive X-linked trait, she will pass the trait on to 100 percent of her offspring
This is because the female can only pass the X chromosome.
(Note that different genotypic abbreviations are used for Mendelian extensions to distinguish these patterns from simple dominance and recessiveness.)
In your case, as long as you're showing your thinking, use whatever notation you'd like. BUT, you should recognize the patterns.
However, we know that the allele donated by the parent with green pods was not simply lost because it reappeared in some of the F2 offspring. Therefore, the F1 plants must have been genotypically different from the parent with yellow pods.
This is why it is so important to follow a trait for multiple generations.
Gene variants that arise by mutation and exist at the same relative locations on homologous chromosomes are called alleles.
Remember, when DNA is replicated in cell division, the process is good, but not perfect. Sometimes these mutations make no difference. Other times they can dramatically alter the organism. This variation is an evolutionary advantage because certain traits will be selected for or against in a population.
homologous
homo = "same", logos = location.
Homologous chromosomes are those which have the same general structure and location. They are the paired chromosomes in the cell.
Mendel also proposed that plants possessed two copies of the trait for the flower-color characteristic
Without an understanding of DNA transmission that we have now, why is this a logical assumption for Mendel to make?
An example of a dominant trait is the violet-flower trait. For this same characteristic (flower color), white-colored flowers are a recessive trait
Don't become confused - flower color is a classic example for codominance, but that is not a generalization that holds true in every case.
reciprocal cross
You'll also see this called a "back cross." It means the same thing.
He allowed the F1 plants to self-fertilize
This is the cross between two F1 individuals. Because pea plants self-fertilize, all he had to do was allow the plant to mature and then harvest seeds.
In other organisms, like fruit flies, you have to specifically mate two F1 individuals to achieve the same results. Make sure you keep these procedural points in mind.
Conventional wisdom at that time would have predicted the hybrid flowers to be pale violet or for hybrid plants to have equal numbers of white and violet flowers.
This is why the null hypothesis is so important. By working under the assumption that colors will not blend, Mendel can avoid bias and work toward a meaningful result. In science, when you're wrong, you learn something.
discontinuous variation
Keep this in mind when you're talking about any type of inheritance. Mendel looked specifically at traits that had discontinuous variation - it was one or the other.
The model for DNA replication suggests that the two strands of the double helix separate during replication, and each strand serves as a template from which the new complementary strand is copied
How does this make DNA a good candidate for the hereditary material? How does it act as a control mechanism in replication?
The phosphate residue is attached to the hydroxyl group of the 5' carbon of one sugar of one nucleotide and the hydroxyl group of the 3' carbon of the sugar of the next nucleotide, thereby forming a 5'-3' phosphodiester bond.
This is important when it comes to polymerizing nucleotide chains. Remember, all DNA/RNA is synthesized 5' -> 3'.
phosphodiester
Remember, an ester is a single bond across oxygen. So, a phosphodiester is two phosphates connected across an oxygen.
he injected mice with the heat-killed S strain
This is important because it serves as the experimental control. Using bacteria that has been killed shows that there is something other than a live cell that can transmit information.
show that hereditary information could be transferred from one cell to another “horizontally,” rather than by descent
Remember, there was a lot of speculation about what the hereditary material was. This is the first good indicator that DNA was that material.
mRNA, carries the message from DNA, which controls all of the cellular activities in a cell
Why does a cell allow mRNA to move outside of the nucleus while the DNA stays inside?
DNA Double-Helix Structure
We'll revisit this portion when we do molecular genetics in depth.
Adenine and guanine are classified as purines. The primary structure of a purine is two carbon-nitrogen rings. Cytosine, thymine, and uracil are classified as pyrimidines which have a single carbon-nitrogen ring as their primary structure (Figure).
The ring structure determines the number of hydrogen bonds which form between the base pair strands. You don't need to memorize which bases are which, but you should know the difference between the purines and pyrimidines.
decreases the hydrogen ion concentration in its environment
Remember, the converse is having high H+ ion concentrations, which makes an acidic environment. Watch what is releasing hydrogen (acid) vs accepting hydrogen (base) to determine the type of solution that forms.
Cholesterol is also the precursor of bile salts, which help in the emulsification of fats and their subsequent absorption by cells.
Emulsification is the process of breaking large lipids down into smaller globules that can be metabolized by lipase enzymes.
steroids have a fused ring structure
Remember, carbohydrates can also form rings. How is the bonding between carbohydrate rings different than steroid rings?
These are the subtle differences that help you identify molecules correctly on the exam.
Many vitamins are fat soluble
Based on this, are vitamins polar or nonpolar? How do you know?
Unsaturated fats help to lower blood cholesterol levels whereas saturated fats contribute to plaque formation in the arteries.
How does the structure contribute to the plaque that can build up?
During this ester bond formation,
An ester is a C-O-C bond.
hydroxyl (OH) groups
Hydroxyl groups are used to identify alcohols.
largely nonpolar in nature
What role in the body would lipids play if they're nonpolar? Why might it be important that they're nonpolar to perform their function?
In these animals, certain species of bacteria and protists reside in the rumen (part of the digestive system of herbivores) and secrete the enzyme cellulase.
Which type of symbiotic relationship is this? Making these kinds of links in your notebook will help you remember material and write more detailed responses on the exam.
As shown in Figure, every other glucose monomer in cellulose is flipped over, and the monomers are packed tightly as extended long chains. This gives cellulose its rigidity and high tensile strength—which is so important to plant cells
Structure and function!
Amylose and amylopectin are two different forms of starch. Amylose is composed of unbranched chains of glucose monomers connected by α 1,4 glycosidic linkages. Amylopectin is composed of branched chains of glucose monomers connected by α 1,4 and α 1,6 glycosidic linkages. Because of the way the subunits are joined, the glucose chains have a helical structure. Glycogen (not shown) is similar in structure to amylopectin but more highly branched.
How might the function of amylose and amylopectin differ in the plant cell based on their structure?
Monosaccharides
Remember, this describes the carbohydrate unit, not the number of carbons in the monomer.
the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1 in carbohydrate molecules
In a pinch, if you can't identify a molecule, knowing these ratios will help you make a decision.
For instance, carbohydrates are broken down by amylase, sucrase, lactase, or maltase. Proteins are broken down by the enzymes pepsin and peptidase, and by hydrochloric acid. Lipids are broken down by lipases
Enzymes all end in -ase. The root of the name is usually derived from the molecule it acts on. For instance, amylase digests amylose. Knowing your suffixes will help you identify the class of molecule and its function.
Each macromolecule is broken down by a specific enzyme.
The structure of the enzyme allows it to act on a specific macromolecule. Structure and function!
In a dehydration synthesis reaction (Figure), the hydrogen of one monomer combines with the hydroxyl group of another monomer, releasing a molecule of water.
Make sure you know your major organic functional groups
Biological macromolecules are organic, meaning they contain carbon
All organic molecules contain chains of carbon. As you'll see, their configuration leads to different classes of molecules with different properties and functions in living systems.
When a protein loses its three-dimensional shape, it may no longer be functional.
A protein may also function incorrectly. An example of proteins-gone-wrong are prions. They're malformed proteins that can cause some terrifying diseases. Mad cow disease (bovine spongiform encephalopathy) is caused by a prion that attacks the nervous system of cattle. It can be passed to other organisms if they consume contaminated beef. Usually, when mad cow is detected in a herd, the entire herd is destroyed.
Only recently was it found that often they receive assistance in the folding process from protein helpers known as chaperones (or chaperonins) that associate with the target protein during the folding process.
That's right - proteins whose sole function is to help other proteins. Crazy.
Think of these like scaffolding on a building. They're there to help support as the bonds and linkages are made to stabilize the whole structure. Once it is complete and functional, they disassociate and move on to the next protein being built.
Not all proteins are denatured at high temperatures; for instance, bacteria that survive in hot springs have proteins that function at temperatures close to boiling. The stomach is also very acidic, has a low pH, and denatures proteins as part of the digestion process; however, the digestive enzymes of the stomach retain their activity under these conditions.
Each protein has a specific active range. While one protein may be denatured by low pH (highly acidic), another might not function at a higher pH at all.
Tertiary Structure
Hopefully, you felt the frustration and deep confusion that follows tertiary structure. In a chain of hundreds of amino acids, there are potentially thousands of interactions that can influence shape. Everything leading up to this point - the sequence and secondary structure - give rise to a functioning protein.
The local folding
These are isolated areas of helices or sheets. The main cause of secondary structure is hydrogen bonding.
The molecule, therefore, has about 600 amino acids. The structural difference between a normal hemoglobin molecule and a sickle cell molecule—which dramatically decreases life expectancy—is a single amino acid of the 600. What is even more remarkable is that those 600 amino acids are encoded by three nucleotides each, and the mutation is caused by a single base change (point mutation), 1 in 1800 bases.
Let this sink in. Our bodies and cells are extremely complex, yet extremely accurate and organized to help prevent these kinds of mistakes.
If this active site is altered because of local changes or changes in overall protein structure, the enzyme may be unable to bind to the substrate.
These changes show up because of anything from an incorrect transcription from the RNA to high heat or high acid concentration. This is called denaturation, is permanent, and usually renders the protein non-functional.
While the terms polypeptide and protein are sometimes used interchangeably, a polypeptide is technically a polymer of amino acids, whereas the term protein is used for a polypeptide or polypeptides that have combined together, often have bound non-peptide prosthetic groups, have a distinct shape, and have a unique function.
Being a protein is more than just having a chain of amino acids. It has to be functional!
The carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of the incoming amino acid combine, releasing a molecule of water
We'll look at this in more detail, but this bonding pattern is unique to proteins and it can help you identify a molecule on the exam. Learn the patterns!
Amino acids such as valine, methionine, and alanine are nonpolar or hydrophobic in nature, while amino acids such as serine, threonine, and cysteine are polar and have hydrophilic side chains.
You need to be able to connect polarity to the acid's behavior in water.
Protein shape is critical to its function, and this shape is maintained by many different types of chemical bonds
The structure of a molecule determines its function.
and are usually complex or conjugated proteins
They rely on a correct quaternary structure - separate polypeptide chains are linked together to form a larger, more complex molecule.
They are all, however, polymers of amino acids, arranged in a linear sequence.
Amino acids are the monomers.
Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks
This is meant to be a review of the basics of chemistry. If you already understand how atoms, ions, etc, work, skim it for review rather than do a deep read. Use your time effectively!
Meristematic
Meristematic tissues divide while permanent tissues do not actively divide
root syste
the root system is usually underground, but that does not mean it can not be above ground.
gymnosperms
A plant that has seeds, unprotected by an ovary or fruit.
angiosperms
A plant that produces seeds, and flowers, that are enclosed by carpel.
aerobic life
We require oxygen to survive and produce carbon dioxide, producing for plants (cycle).
Mechanical defenses, such as the presence of thorns on plants or the hard shell on turtles, discourage animal predation and herbivory by causing physical pain to the predator or by physically preventing the predator from being able to eat the prey.
Defense towards predators.
This accelerating pattern of increasing population size is called exponential growth.
Remember, this can also be called "intrinsic growth" because it represents how a population will grow without any external limiting factors.
Energy is required by all living organisms for their growth, maintenance, and reproduction; at the same time, energy is often a major limiting factor in determining an organism’s survival.
Life is an open system! Available (free) energy is used to maintain life processes.
These types of species usually have small numbers of offspring at one time, and they give a high amount of parental care to them to ensure their survival.
Which reproductive strategy is this?
These are known as uniform, random, and clumped dispersion patterns, respectively
How can their reproductive strategies tie into the dispersion observed?
Multiple quadrat samples are performed throughout the habitat at several random locations.
Randomness and frequent samples can help describe large areas accurately.
Falsifiable is used when a hypothesis can be disproved by evidence of an experiment.
macroevolution is the process for species to rise while microevolution is the change of population over time
Modern synthesis is the understanding of the population between the natural selection and shapes between the 1940s all the way into present time.
If the frequencies of the alleles from genotypes differ from the Hardy-Weinberg equation, then the population is evolving.
Photoautotrophs
Photoautotrophs (plants, algae) are an energy source for many ecosystems in the world while chemoautotrophs are bacterias that are found in rare ecosystems where there is no sunlight (caves, bottom of the ocean)
explanatory hypotheses, possible explanations for observations in nature,
descriptions of observed patterns in nature
Generalizing Hypotheses describe patterns in nature, while explanatory explain potential things in nature
In the Science Classroom, most of what our students do is the testing of patterns, in other words, the testing of generalizing hypotheses.
How does your proposed hypothesis match up with this this explanation? Do you need to make any adjustments?
They also make the statement tentative: “may.” However, words like “may” aren’t required of hypothesis statements. Indeed, being tentative is implied by the fact that a hypothesis statement is falsifiable.
Remember, the entire goal of a scientific study is to find evidence against the hypothesis.
where one variable may be associated with another variable but neither causes the other
You'll also see this called a "confounding factor."
However, Leaf and Rauch had not proven that the pattern was true, they had simply shown experimental support for the pattern.
Media does this all the time. Whenever you hear, "a new report shows that..." you need to start thinking like a scientist. What is it really showing?
I was unfortunately not trained as a scientist, let alone to think like one.
What does it mean to "think like [a scientist]?" How can we train ourselves to think through that lens?
hypotheses are explanations or generalizations about nature.
two types of hypothesis; explanatory and generalizations
avoid “If – then” statements because it becomes too likely they will write a method followed by a prediction and forget the hypothesis altogether.
if-then statements are predictions.
If I do X, then Y will happen. There is no hypothesis here. This is simply a method (if I do X) followed by a prediction (then Y will happen). Some teachers and textbooks add “…because…” at the end of the “If…, then…” statement. The because statement is often close to the hypothesis that is being tested, but it still does not carefully delineate the hypothesis from the prediction.
A hypothesis explains why something will happen. There is an explanation with it, not just a prediction with no evidence.
Research hypotheses force scientists to be very clear to themselves and their colleagues about exactly what the explanation is that they are testing, the general method they are using to test it, and the prediction they can make if their explanation is reasonable. The research hypothesis follows the form: If X is a valid hypothesis (explanation), and I perform Y methods (experiment), then I can predict Z as a specific measurable outcome.
Why might this step be important in a research setting?
The ecologist may explain this observed pattern with the hypothesis that the birds and their food resources, usually insects, are responding to the same environmental cues (warm spring temperatures). The ecologist could then predict that regardless of how early spring comes, the birds and their insect prey will always be somewhat synchronized in time.
Note the differences and relationship between these two statements.
This post focuses on science that is driven by explanatory hypotheses and aims to help teachers understand what an explanatory hypothesis is in science and how the hypothesis is different from the prediction.
The hypothesis is not a "best guess." It generalizes or explains a pattern observed. The prediction - the application of a potentially true hypothesis is the "best guess."
tentative, testable, and falsifiable statement that explains some observed phenomenon in nature
Write this down.
Other scientific methodology involves testing models.
Our evolution models and our population growth models are good examples of how science can be done without a specified hypothesis. But, like Paul mentions, you can create hypotheses to test with those models.
Scientific methodologies are also not always hypothesis-driven.
This is very important. The hypothesis is always presented as the driving force in science. Not so.
s greenhouse gases trap the heat in the atmosphere,
This is responsible for global warming. The gases trap a lot of hear which raises the global temperature which is slowly starting to melt the ice caps. This again, is due to the CO2 emissions from the rise in industrialization.
Global climate change is the term used to describe altered global weather patterns, including a worldwide increase in temperature, due largely to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
CO2 levels have been rising over the years. As the population grew, the demand for goods went up which in turn boosted the industrialization era. Because of industrialization, the CO2 emissions are growing every day,
The ecosystem is composed of all the biotic components (living things) in an area along with the abiotic components (non-living things) of that area
This ties in with the notes from Paul Anderson about biotic and abiotic components. This will be helpful in the isopod lab as well.
Within the discipline of ecology, researchers work at four specific levels, sometimes discretely and sometimes with overlap: organism, population, community, and ecosystem (Figure).
This is very similar to what they do in chemistry and anatomy. They observe the macroscopic as well as the microscopic aspects of a certain subject. Ecology is split into 4 groups that contain their own subgroups.
One core goal of ecology is to understand the distribution and abundance of living things in the physical environment
Ecology looks to be an important aspect of biology. After all, it's how Charles Darwin was able to come up with his "Origin of Species". He made good observations and elaborated on those. From those, he was able to come up with a conjecture that was later "proven" with more data.
Researchers have shown that 385 plant species in Great Britain are flowering 4.5 days sooner than was recorded earlier during the previous 40 years.
In 2012 in our region (Indiana and Michigan) there was a warm break in March. Temperatures were in the 60's and 70's leading to many fruit trees to bud and flower too soon. The cold returned and killed off a large portion of the region's fruit crop that year. If you rely on predictable weather patterns for your livlihood, how does climate change affect you now?
(the density of water is related to its temperature
Recall chemistry (or physics): Why does ice float?
This geologic time period was one of the three warmest periods in Earth’s geologic history. Scientists estimate that approximately 70 percent of the terrestrial plant and animal species and 84 percent of marine species became extinct, vanishing forever near the end of the Permian period
Evolution can be driven by major events where population sizes swing wildly. What kinds of founders would have been left over after an extinction event like this one?
When heat energy from the sun strikes the Earth, gases known as greenhouse gases trap the heat in the atmosphere, as do the glass panes of a greenhouse keep heat from escaping.
Think back to your physics classes: heat is infrared radiation. Infrared waves cannot pass through glass, which is why greenhouses (and your car on hot days) heat up. Greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide (among others) have a similar effect on infrared radiation when it enters Earth's atmosphere.
Viewing the ice cores is like traveling backwards through time; the deeper the sample, the earlier the time period.
This is similar to trees adding growth rings each season. In the Antarctic, ice layers as the south pole moves from its warm season to its cold season. These layers of ice can be analyzed for various chemical components, including carbon dioxide.
Review Questions
These review questions are good checks for understanding of your reading. Remember, we don't cover everything in class. Use what resources you have available to solidify your understanding. These can also help you determine what questions you should be asking me in class.
Researchers interested in ecosystem ecology could ask questions about the importance of limited resources and the movement of resources, such as nutrients, though the biotic and abiotic portions of the ecosystem.
A major portion of this section is looking at how energy is shared between different organisms and how we can track it's flow through a particular ecosystem. As energy availability ebbs and flows, what changes would you expect in the populations living in that region?
biochemistry, physiology, evolution, biodiversity, molecular biology, geology, and climatology.
This unit is similar to evolution - there are a lot of tie-ins that we haven't specifically discussed yet. We'll look at some of the big ideas and continue to loop back to ecology as we cover those other topics.
The steps of the scientific method will be examined in detail later, but one of the most important aspects of this method is the testing of hypotheses by means of repeatable experiments.
Determining if your hypothesis is correct or if you need to alter it and retest your hypothesis.
Two types of logical reasoning are used in science. Inductive reasoning uses particular results to produce general scientific principles. Deductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that predicts results by applying general principles
The difference between inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning is that inductive uses certain results why deductive reasoning uses predictions by applying "general principles"
Basic science or “pure” science seeks to expand knowledge regardless of the short-term application of that knowledge. It is not focused on developing a product or a service of immediate public or commercial value. The immediate goal of basic science is knowledge for knowledge’s sake, though this does not mean that, in the end, it may not result in a practical application.
Although basic sciences literally means attaining the knowledge of basic sciences, it does not mean that in the end the knowledge will be worthless. It functions as a base of knowledge to keep filling more on top.
The allele frequency (or gene frequency)
This is the basis of the Hardy-Weinberg Equation.
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
Descriptive (or discovery) science, which is usually inductive
This is the type of science that is typically used in the real world to discover solutions to problems or develop new and more efficient things.
founder effect
For example, emergence of upright-walking apes.
gene pool
p^2+2pq+p^2=1
blending inheritance
The theory that the traits of offspring were intermediate between those of the parents.
The scientific method is a method of research with defined steps that include experiments and careful observation.
The steps of the scientific method include the following: Ask a question, do background research, construct a hypothesis, experiment, then analyze results and retest if necessary.
g.
especially when acquired and tested by the scientific method
Remember, a question must be investigatable in order to fall under the scientific method. Direct observations are necessary!
Hypothes.is
This is what an annotation in Hypothes.is looks like.
You have to be signed in to make annotations, but not to read them if the app is installed.
qualitative or quantitative
"Qualitative" - observations without quantities associated (color, shape, etc)
"Quantitative" - descriptions of quantity or specific measurements (10 ducks, 15cm in length, etc)
The steps of the scientific method will be examined in detail later, but one of the most important aspects of this method is the testing of hypotheses by means of repeatable experiments.
It's important to remember that the scientific method is much more complex than the question -> hypothesis -> experiment process you've learned.