Because the energy in the bond is tied up, it cannot do anything else (heat up the water, dissolve more solute, etc). This is why potential decreases as solute increases.

Because we know the baseline, all water potential values will be positive or negative.

You can think about this as a baseline. If pure water's potential is zero, any movement due to osmosis is attributed to the presence of solutes.

Our system was a cell in a solution. Water moves based on differences in potential energy.

Review: which class of molecule is this? How can you identify it visually?

Essentially, the needle has a small enough diameter that it can "push" the phospholipids aside without causing enough damage to rupture the membrane.

"Autoimmune disorders" like rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and celiac disease are caused by your immune system not recognizing the "self" of your body cells.

This is important!

Again, think back to what you know about protein structure. Different regions of the molecule, because of the amino acid sequence and initial folding (1st, 2nd degree) causes the protein to fold (3rd degree) in a specific pattern with specific qualities.

Why do fatty acids tend to be nonpolar in general? Think about the chemical structure!

It's a phospholipid bilayer.

amphiphilic means it has a two-sided nature.

Colloquially, "How to separate inside from outside without starving."

These terms are always backed up by a statistical test, not just intuition.

The density of information in research is so high that annotation becomes a very important skill.

Multiple modes of interaction with text can help form deeper understanding of the material.

Remember, in chromosome segregation, spindle fibers are created and organized by centrosomes in animal cells only. Plant cells lack centrosomes and the mechanism for spindle formations is not well understood.

Is this always a bad thing? Why or why not?

Why would a cell be interested in dividing when it's neighbor dies?

Remember, everything that happens in the cell is regulated at multiple levels.

Why is it pulled quickly?

Why is having the chromosomes highly condensed advantageous?

karyo = "seed" (Greek, nucleus), kinesis = "movement."

This is one of the most interesting parts of cell structure. It isn't like a water balloon, with no structure. It is filled with a network of microtubules which provide structural support to every part of the cell.

This is chapters 15 and 16. Cross reference!

This is an asexual reproductive pattern for our somatic cells.

This is good review. Look back over your notes from the molecular genetics work we did back before break.

Why is this important in terms of the long-term survivability of a species?

These copies of genes on homologous chromosomes are alleles.

"ploidy" refers to the number of sets of chromosomes in a cell. Humans have 23 sets for 46 total chromosomes. Because they're in pairs, we are diploid.

There are other organisms that are triploid (three of each type) and even polyploidy (many).

The area of the square is exponential, so it grows very quickly.

This is a clue for when you're determining the inheritance pattern of a particular trait!

This is because the female can only pass the X chromosome.

In your case, as long as you're showing your thinking, use whatever notation you'd like. BUT, you should recognize the patterns.

This is why it is so important to follow a trait for multiple generations.

Remember, when DNA is replicated in cell division, the process is good, but not perfect. Sometimes these mutations make no difference. Other times they can dramatically alter the organism. This variation is an evolutionary advantage because certain traits will be selected for or against in a population.

homo = "same", logos = location.

Homologous chromosomes are those which have the same general structure and location. They are the paired chromosomes in the cell.

Without an understanding of DNA transmission that we have now, why is this a logical assumption for Mendel to make?

Don't become confused - flower color is a classic example for codominance, but that is not a generalization that holds true in every case.

You'll also see this called a "back cross." It means the same thing.

This is the cross between two F1 individuals. Because pea plants self-fertilize, all he had to do was allow the plant to mature and then harvest seeds.

In other organisms, like fruit flies, you have to specifically mate two F1 individuals to achieve the same results. Make sure you keep these procedural points in mind.

This is why the null hypothesis is so important. By working under the assumption that colors will not blend, Mendel can avoid bias and work toward a meaningful result. In science, when you're wrong, you learn something.

Keep this in mind when you're talking about any type of inheritance. Mendel looked specifically at traits that had discontinuous variation - it was one or the other.

How does this make DNA a good candidate for the hereditary material? How does it act as a control mechanism in replication?

This is important when it comes to polymerizing nucleotide chains. Remember, all DNA/RNA is synthesized 5' -> 3'.

Remember, an ester is a single bond across oxygen. So, a phosphodiester is two phosphates connected across an oxygen.

This is important because it serves as the experimental control. Using bacteria that has been killed shows that there is something other than a live cell that can transmit information.

Remember, there was a lot of speculation about what the hereditary material was. This is the first good indicator that DNA was that material.

Why does a cell allow mRNA to move outside of the nucleus while the DNA stays inside?

We'll revisit this portion when we do molecular genetics in depth.

The ring structure determines the number of hydrogen bonds which form between the base pair strands. You don't need to memorize which bases are which, but you should know the difference between the purines and pyrimidines.

Remember, the converse is having high H+ ion concentrations, which makes an acidic environment. Watch what is releasing hydrogen (acid) vs accepting hydrogen (base) to determine the type of solution that forms.

Emulsification is the process of breaking large lipids down into smaller globules that can be metabolized by lipase enzymes.

Remember, carbohydrates can also form rings. How is the bonding between carbohydrate rings different than steroid rings?

These are the subtle differences that help you identify molecules correctly on the exam.

Based on this, are vitamins polar or nonpolar? How do you know?

How does the structure contribute to the plaque that can build up?

An ester is a C-O-C bond.

Hydroxyl groups are used to identify alcohols.

What role in the body would lipids play if they're nonpolar? Why might it be important that they're nonpolar to perform their function?

Which type of symbiotic relationship is this? Making these kinds of links in your notebook will help you remember material and write more detailed responses on the exam.

Structure and function!

How might the function of amylose and amylopectin differ in the plant cell based on their structure?

Remember, this describes the carbohydrate unit, not the number of carbons in the monomer.

In a pinch, if you can't identify a molecule, knowing these ratios will help you make a decision.

Enzymes all end in -ase. The root of the name is usually derived from the molecule it acts on. For instance, amylase digests amylose. Knowing your suffixes will help you identify the class of molecule and its function.

The structure of the enzyme allows it to act on a specific macromolecule. Structure and function!

Make sure you know your major organic functional groups

All organic molecules contain chains of carbon. As you'll see, their configuration leads to different classes of molecules with different properties and functions in living systems.

A protein may also function incorrectly. An example of proteins-gone-wrong are prions. They're malformed proteins that can cause some terrifying diseases. Mad cow disease (bovine spongiform encephalopathy) is caused by a prion that attacks the nervous system of cattle. It can be passed to other organisms if they consume contaminated beef. Usually, when mad cow is detected in a herd, the entire herd is destroyed.

That's right - proteins whose sole function is to help other proteins. Crazy.

Think of these like scaffolding on a building. They're there to help support as the bonds and linkages are made to stabilize the whole structure. Once it is complete and functional, they disassociate and move on to the next protein being built.

Each protein has a specific active range. While one protein may be denatured by low pH (highly acidic), another might not function at a higher pH at all.

Hopefully, you felt the frustration and deep confusion that follows tertiary structure. In a chain of hundreds of amino acids, there are potentially thousands of interactions that can influence shape. Everything leading up to this point - the sequence and secondary structure - give rise to a functioning protein.

These are isolated areas of helices or sheets. The main cause of secondary structure is hydrogen bonding.

Let this sink in. Our bodies and cells are extremely complex, yet extremely accurate and organized to help prevent these kinds of mistakes.

These changes show up because of anything from an incorrect transcription from the RNA to high heat or high acid concentration. This is called denaturation, is permanent, and usually renders the protein non-functional.

Being a protein is more than just having a chain of amino acids. It has to be functional!

We'll look at this in more detail, but this bonding pattern is unique to proteins and it can help you identify a molecule on the exam. Learn the patterns!

You need to be able to connect polarity to the acid's behavior in water.

The structure of a molecule determines its function.

They rely on a correct quaternary structure - separate polypeptide chains are linked together to form a larger, more complex molecule.

Amino acids are the monomers.

This is meant to be a review of the basics of chemistry. If you already understand how atoms, ions, etc, work, skim it for review rather than do a deep read. Use your time effectively!

Meristematic tissues divide while permanent tissues do not actively divide

the root system is usually underground, but that does not mean it can not be above ground.

A plant that has seeds, unprotected by an ovary or fruit.

A plant that produces seeds, and flowers, that are enclosed by carpel.

We require oxygen to survive and produce carbon dioxide, producing for plants (cycle).

Defense towards predators.

Remember, this can also be called "intrinsic growth" because it represents how a population will grow without any external limiting factors.

Life is an open system! Available (free) energy is used to maintain life processes.

Which reproductive strategy is this?

How can their reproductive strategies tie into the dispersion observed?

Randomness and frequent samples can help describe large areas accurately.

Falsifiable is used when a hypothesis can be disproved by evidence of an experiment.

macroevolution is the process for species to rise while microevolution is the change of population over time

Modern synthesis is the understanding of the population between the natural selection and shapes between the 1940s all the way into present time.

If the frequencies of the alleles from genotypes differ from the Hardy-Weinberg equation, then the population is evolving.

Photoautotrophs (plants, algae) are an energy source for many ecosystems in the world while chemoautotrophs are bacterias that are found in rare ecosystems where there is no sunlight (caves, bottom of the ocean)

Generalizing Hypotheses describe patterns in nature, while explanatory explain potential things in nature

How does your proposed hypothesis match up with this this explanation? Do you need to make any adjustments?

Remember, the entire goal of a scientific study is to find evidence against the hypothesis.

You'll also see this called a "confounding factor."

Media does this all the time. Whenever you hear, "a new report shows that..." you need to start thinking like a scientist. What is it really showing?

What does it mean to "think like [a scientist]?" How can we train ourselves to think through that lens?

two types of hypothesis; explanatory and generalizations

if-then statements are predictions.

A hypothesis explains why something will happen. There is an explanation with it, not just a prediction with no evidence.

Why might this step be important in a research setting?

Note the differences and relationship between these two statements.

The hypothesis is not a "best guess." It generalizes or explains a pattern observed. The prediction - the application of a potentially true hypothesis is the "best guess."

Write this down.

Our evolution models and our population growth models are good examples of how science can be done without a specified hypothesis. But, like Paul mentions, you can create hypotheses to test with those models.

This is very important. The hypothesis is always presented as the driving force in science. Not so.

This is responsible for global warming. The gases trap a lot of hear which raises the global temperature which is slowly starting to melt the ice caps. This again, is due to the CO2 emissions from the rise in industrialization.

CO2 levels have been rising over the years. As the population grew, the demand for goods went up which in turn boosted the industrialization era. Because of industrialization, the CO2 emissions are growing every day,

This ties in with the notes from Paul Anderson about biotic and abiotic components. This will be helpful in the isopod lab as well.

This is very similar to what they do in chemistry and anatomy. They observe the macroscopic as well as the microscopic aspects of a certain subject. Ecology is split into 4 groups that contain their own subgroups.

Ecology looks to be an important aspect of biology. After all, it's how Charles Darwin was able to come up with his "Origin of Species". He made good observations and elaborated on those. From those, he was able to come up with a conjecture that was later "proven" with more data.

In 2012 in our region (Indiana and Michigan) there was a warm break in March. Temperatures were in the 60's and 70's leading to many fruit trees to bud and flower too soon. The cold returned and killed off a large portion of the region's fruit crop that year. If you rely on predictable weather patterns for your livlihood, how does climate change affect you now?

Recall chemistry (or physics): Why does ice float?

Evolution can be driven by major events where population sizes swing wildly. What kinds of founders would have been left over after an extinction event like this one?

Think back to your physics classes: heat is infrared radiation. Infrared waves cannot pass through glass, which is why greenhouses (and your car on hot days) heat up. Greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide (among others) have a similar effect on infrared radiation when it enters Earth's atmosphere.

This is similar to trees adding growth rings each season. In the Antarctic, ice layers as the south pole moves from its warm season to its cold season. These layers of ice can be analyzed for various chemical components, including carbon dioxide.

These review questions are good checks for understanding of your reading. Remember, we don't cover everything in class. Use what resources you have available to solidify your understanding. These can also help you determine what questions you should be asking me in class.

A major portion of this section is looking at how energy is shared between different organisms and how we can track it's flow through a particular ecosystem. As energy availability ebbs and flows, what changes would you expect in the populations living in that region?

This unit is similar to evolution - there are a lot of tie-ins that we haven't specifically discussed yet. We'll look at some of the big ideas and continue to loop back to ecology as we cover those other topics.

Determining if your hypothesis is correct or if you need to alter it and retest your hypothesis.

The difference between inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning is that inductive uses certain results why deductive reasoning uses predictions by applying "general principles"

Although basic sciences literally means attaining the knowledge of basic sciences, it does not mean that in the end the knowledge will be worthless. It functions as a base of knowledge to keep filling more on top.

This is the basis of the Hardy-Weinberg Equation.

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

This is the type of science that is typically used in the real world to discover solutions to problems or develop new and more efficient things.

For example, emergence of upright-walking apes.

p^2+2pq+p^2=1

The theory that the traits of offspring were intermediate between those of the parents.

The steps of the scientific method include the following: Ask a question, do background research, construct a hypothesis, experiment, then analyze results and retest if necessary.

1. Deductive reasoning uses a conclusive statement to FORECAST specific results. Inductive reasoning uses related observations to arrive at a general CONCLUSION.

Remember, a question must be investigatable in order to fall under the scientific method. Direct observations are necessary!

This is what an annotation in Hypothes.is looks like.

You have to be signed in to make annotations, but not to read them if the app is installed.

"Qualitative" - observations without quantities associated (color, shape, etc)

"Quantitative" - descriptions of quantity or specific measurements (10 ducks, 15cm in length, etc)

It's important to remember that the scientific method is much more complex than the question -> hypothesis -> experiment process you've learned.