is:preprint lang:en fallacy manipulations checks psychological experiments confidence validity causal explanation causality inferential confidence internal validity uninformative compromise interpretations experimental results falsification

is:preprint lang:en COVID-19 manipulations spins attention disorders research attention disorders ADHD over-diagnosis over-treatment raise awareness in-depth inspection increased risk of infection stimulants reduce risk inappropriate operational definitions misrepresentations omissions bogus results adverse effects of medication poor methodologies biases pharmaceutical industry over-medication healthy scientific scepticism reliable transparent