Far too much work in educational technology starts with tools, when what we need to start with is humans.

it is “a social justice movement first, and an educational movement second.”

Pedagogy, on the other hand, starts with learning as its center,

Critical, as in criticizing institutional, corporate, or societal impediments to learning;

Schools are not

To what extent can social media function as a space of democratic participation?

If students live in a culture that digitizes and educates them through a screen, they require an education that empowers them in that sphere, teaches them that language, and offers new opportunities of human connectivity.

content is co-constructed as part of and not in advance of the learning.

Knowledge emerges in the interplay between multiple people in conversation — brushing against one another in a mutual and charged exchange or dialogue.

our real selves and our virtual selves,

every instance of the word academy is literally an accident.

performance and deform

A scratchy recording of the Norwegian national anthem blares out from a loudspeaker at the Sailor's Home on the bluff above the channel. The container ship being greeted flies a Bahamian flag of convenience. It was built by Koreans working long hours in the giant shipyards of Ulsan. The underpaid and the understaffed crew could be Salvado- rean or Filipino. Only the Captain hears a familiar melody.

The message about Christmas was clear: if you don’t put in the effort, you won’t be rewarded with family togetherness.

In the early 2000’s, this picture of Christmas started to change. The focus was now on preparation, as women were shown serving the food. The magazines also started to give women ‘how to’ instructions.

longitudinal semiotic analysis

Similarly, for any given period, it will refrain from selecting the most educated language, but will concern itself at the same time with popular forms more or less in contrast with the so-called educated or literary language,

This indeed recognizes a truth; it is never the case in fact that theteacher always knows and the student never does. Even quite 'conventional' academic authorsoften testify to the contributions their students have made; this bears witness to the fact that ameaningful dialog has taken place between teacher and students.

a contradiction in which they neither are fully human.

the formeraiming to suppress critical apprehension of reality the latter favouring the discovery of realitythrough critical thought and free communication

All the State Apparatuses function both by repression and by ideology, with the difference that the (Repressive) State Apparatus functions massively and predominantly by repression, whereas the Ideological State Apparatuses function massively and predominantly by ideology.

This is the fact that the (Repressive) State Apparatus functions massively and predominantly by repression (including physical repression), while functioning secondarily by ideology. (There is no such thing as a purely repressive apparatus.) For example, the Army and the Police also function by ideology both to ensure their own cohesion and reproduction, and in the ‘values’ they propound externally. In the same way, but inversely, it is essential to say that for their part the Ideological State Apparatuses function massively and predominantly by ideology, but they also function secondarily by repression, even if ultimately, but only ultimately, this is very attenuated and concealed, even symbolic. (There is no such thing as a purely ideological apparatus.)

What are the Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs)?

the reproduction of its subjection to the ruling ideology or of the ‘practice’ of that ideology, with the proviso that it is not enough to say ‘not only but also’, for it is clear that it is in the forms and under the forms of ideological subjection that provision is made for the reproduction of the skills of labour power.

the labour power has to be (diversely) skilled and therefore reproduced as such. Diversely: according to the requirements of the socio-technical division of labour, its different ‘jobs’ and ‘posts’.

Remember that this quantity of value (wages) necessary for the reproduction of labour power is determined not by the needs of a ‘biological’ Guaranteed Minimum Wage (Salaire Minimum Interprofessionnel Garanti) alone, but by the needs of a historical minimum (Marx noted that English workers need beer while French proletarians need wine) – i.e. a historically variable minimum.

the reproduction of labour power takes place essentially outside the firm.

2. the existing relations of production.

process of production sets to work the existing productive forces in and under definite relations of production.

every child knows that a social formation which did not reproduce the conditions of production at the same time as it produced would not last a year.[2] The ultimate condition of production is therefore the reproduction of the conditions of production.

It is in the significant silences of a text, in its gaps and absences, that the presence of ideology can be most positively felt. It is these silences which the critic must make 'speak'. The text is, as it were, ideologically forbidden to say certain things; in trying to tell the truth in his own way, for example, the author finds himself forced to reveal the limits of the ideology within which he writes. He is forced to reveal its gaps and silences, what it is unable to articulate. Because a text contains these gaps and silences, it is always incomplete.

On the contrary, it is in the nature of the work to be incomplete, tied as it is to an ideology which silences it at certain points. (It is, if you like, complete in its incompleteness.)

Preface v

3 The writer and commitment 1 8 4 The author as producer 28

2 Form and content 10

1 Literature and history 1

I find the comments of both Althusser and Macherey at crucial points ambiguous and obscure

it allows us to 'see' the nature of that ideology, and thus begins to move us towards that full understanding of ideology which is scientific knowledge.

Louis Althusser

It is not a matter of reducing the poem to the state of contemporary capitalism

'vulgar Marxist'

Literature may be part of the superstructure, but it is not merely the passive reflection of the economic base.

'sociology of literature'.

There is nothing academic about those struggles, and we forget this at our cost.

Marxist criticism is part of a larger body of theoretical analysis which aims to understand ideologies — the ideas, values and feelings by which men experience their societies at various times. And certain of those ideas, values and feelings are available to us only in literature.

insta~ility of the text and\/ the unavailability of determinate meanings

"I mean in this class do we believe in poems and things, or is it just us?"

The transactional phrasing of the reading process underlines the essential importance of both elements, reader and text, in any reading event.

use of the term '"transaction"

the reader should not project ideas or attitudes that have no defensible linkage with the text.

The reading of a text is an event occurring at a particular time in a particular environment at a particular moment in the life history of the reader.

, developed further by Hadley Cantril. For example, in one of the Ames-Cantril experiments the viewer "sees" a room as rectangular although it is actually trapezoidal or otherwise distorted. The observer is confronted with a definitely structured stimulus, but he selects, organizes, and interprets the cues according to his past experience of a room. The observer hits walls which he interprets as being elsewhere; he flails about with a stick at walls that are not there. Sometimes a disturbing period of readjustment is required. Such experiments demonstrate how much perception depends on the selection and organization of cues according to past experience and expectations. The perception may be revised, but it will be through an extension of the transactional process to which both perceiver and the environment contribute.11

Moreover, we see that the reader was not only paying attention to what the words pointed to in the external world, to their referents; he was also paying attention to the images, feelings, attitudes, associations, and ideas that the words and their referents evoked in him

a number of the readers never freed themselves from the problem of finding such a practical explanation for a play's success being dependent on the sun.

To speak of any reading event in isolation is, of course, to set up a useful fiction for analysis.

In reading, the message would be represented by the author's written or printed symbols, which constitute what I term "the text." The temptation is simply to adapt the formula and substitute "author" for "speaker," [20] "reader" for "listener." This masks the fact that in any actual reading act, the author has dropped out. Only the text and the reader remain.

"Something, not yet a stimulus, ... becomes a stimulus by virtue of the relations it sustains to what is going on in this continuing activity. ... It becomes the stimulus in virtue of what the organism is already preoccupied with."

but a valid interpretation, I believe, must be at the same time an [16] interpretation of my own feelings when I read it."6

Perhaps because of preoccupation with the tie between the author and his creation, or the fixation on the text itself, there has been resistance to, and suspicion of the idea of the reader's creativity.

This necessary co-operation between writer and reader, the one to suggest, the other to make concrete, is a privilege of verbal form.5

Does not the reader

This becomes part of the ongoing stream of his life experience, to be reflected on from any angle important to him as a human being.

compenetration

"Poem" stands here for the whole category, "literary work of art," and for terms such as "novel," "play," or "short story." This substitution is often justified by the assertion that poems are the most concentrated form of the category, the others being usually more extended in time, more loosely integrated.

irst, the text is a stimulus* activating elements of the reader's experience—his experience both with literature and with life. Second, the text serves as a blueprint, a guide for the selecting, rejecting, and ordering of what is being called forth; the text regulates* what shall be held in the forefront of the reader's attention.

the fact that the reader's creation of a poem out of a text must be an active, self-ordering and self-corrective process.

He may discover that he had projected on the text elements of his past experience not relevant to it, and which are not susceptible of coherent incorporation into it.

particular associations or feeling-tones created by his past experiences with them in actual life or in literature

Moreover, we see that the reader was not only paying attention to what the words pointed to in the external world, to their referents; he was also paying attention to the images, feelings, attitudes, associations, and ideas that the words and their referents evoked in him

hey do give us some clues as to what goes on during the active relationship between reader and text.

Some, in addition, felt it necessary to pack in as much symbolism as possible and tried to find another level of meaning for "the sun" as well.

the notion of inanity evidently had prepared them to think of the great drama being played out through the ages by mankind on this planet

having called up such a vivid notion of a director or producer talking about a play, immediately attempted to adapt this to a situation

it starts like the others, but quickly makes articulate the realization that this text is to be read as a poem

These notes reflect, one might say, a rudimentary literary response, yet they already represent a very high level of organization.

Two examples of the opening remarks in the commentaries reject an initial confusion

My aim was rather to discoveries paths by which these students approached even a tentative fest interpretation.

.

Romance of the Rose could not, without loss," observes Mr. Lewis, "be rewritten as the Romance of the Onio

e total statement has a more complex and testable .structure

litative progress

the affective critic (avoiding both the physiological and the ab stractly psychological form of report) ventures to state with any precision what a line of poetry does?as "it fills us with a mix ture of melancholy and reverence for antiquity"?either the statement will be patently abnormal or false, or it will be a description of what the meaning of the line is: "the spectacle of massive antiquity in ruins." Tennyson's "Tears, idle tears," as it deals with an emotion which the speaker at first seems not to understand, might be thought to be a specially emotive poe

today actually able, if he wishes, to measure the "psycho-galvanic reflex" of persons subjected to a given moving picture.1

e is today found perhaps less often among the sophisticates at the theater than among the myriad audience of movie and radio. It is said, and no doubt reliably, that during the war Stefan Schnabel played Nazi roles in radio dramas so convincingly that he received numerous letters of

most concrete instances not a theory but a fiction or a fact?of no critical signific

nd so a poem," says Hans Zinsser, means nothing to me unless it can carry me away with the gentle or passionate pace of its emotion, over obstacles of reality into meadows and covers of illusion. . . . The sole criterion for me is whether it can sweep me with it into emotion or illusion of beauty, terror, tranquillity, or even dis

unconscious.3 They are the correla tives of very generalized objects,

s in different measures of knowledge, based on experience of the consequences of conduct, and in different be liefs." Th

ne of these examples (except the utterly anomalous "Sibboleth") offers any evidence, in short, that what a word does to a person is to be ascribed to anything except

es." And secondly, by the fact that a great deal of emotive import which does not depend thus directly on de scriptive meaning does depend on descriptive sugges

ort" might have been a happy choice.

this is on the side of what may be called the descriptive (or cognitive) func tion of words

ne of the most emphatic points in Mr. Stevenson's system is the distinction between what a word means and what it sug gests. T

. Richards spoke of "aesthetic" or "projectile" words?adjectives by which we project feelings at objects themselves altogether innocent of these feelings or of any qualities corresponding to the

"In order to judge the poet's performance, we must know what he intended."

The art of inspiring poets, or at least of inciting something like poetry in young persons, has probably gone further in our day than ever before.

There is a gross body of life, of sensory and mental experience, which lies behind and in some sense causes every poem, but can never be and need not be known in the verbal and hence intellectual composition which is the poem. For all the objects of our manifold experience, for every unity, there is an action of the mind which cuts off roots, melts away context‑or indeed we should never have objects or ideas or anything to talk about.

the design or intention of the author is neither available nor desirable as a standard for judging the success of a work of literary art

Critical inquiries are not settled by consulting the oracle.

I don't pretend that I quite understand My own meaning when I would be very fine; But the fact is that I have nothing planned Unless it were to be a moment merry.

had to pay in order to avoid what he would have considered muffling the energy of his poem by extended connecting links in the text itself.

and it is a nice question whether the notes function more as guides to send us where we may be educated, or more as indications in themselves about the character of the allusions.

If the distinction between kinds of evidence has implications for the historical critic, it has them no less for the contemporary poet and his critic.

It is difficult to answer argument like this, and impossible to answer it with evidence of like nature.

For all the objects of our manifold experience, for every unity, there is an action of the mind which cuts off roots, melts away context‑or indeed we should never have objects or ideas or anything to talk about.

There is a difference between internal and external evidence for the meaning of a poem. And the paradox is only verbal and superficial that what is (1) internal is also public: it is discovered through the semantics and syntax of a poem, through our habitual knowledge of the language, through grammars, dictionaries, and all the literature which is the source of dictionaries, in general through all that makes a language and culture; while what is (2) external is private or idiosyncratic; not a part of the work as a linguistic fact: it consists of revelations (in journals, for example, or letters or reported conversations) about how or why the poet wrote the poem‑to what lady, while sitting on what lawn, or at the death of what friend or brother. There is (3) an intermediate kind of evidence about the character of the author or about private or semiprivate meanings attached to words or topics by an author or by a coterie of which he is a member. The meaning of words is the history of words, and the biography of an author, his use of a word, and the associations which the word had for him, are part of the words history and meaning.7 But the three types of evidence, especially (2) and (3), shade into one another so subtly that it is not always easy to draw a line between examples,

The evaluation of the work of art remains public; the work is measured against something outside the author.

judgment of poems is different from the art of producing them.

public art of evaluating poems

School are interesting evidence of what a child can do.

ruth! there can be no merit, no craft at all, without that.

Then I knew that not by wisdom do poets write poetry, but by a sort of genius and inspiration.

plausibility, produce an essay in sociology, biography, or other kinds of nonaesthetic history.

there is another way of deciding whether works of art are worth preserving and whether, in a sense, they "ought" to have been undertaken, and this is the way of objective criticism of works of art as such, the way which enables us to distinguish between a skillful murder and a skillful poem.

The beautiful is the successful intuition‑expression, and the ugly is the unsuccessful; the intuition or private part of art is the aesthetic fact, and the medium or public part is not the subject of aesthetic at all.

Homer enters into the sublime actions of his heroes" and "shares the full inspiration of the combat," we shall

and not the author's (it is detached from the author at birth and goes about the world beyond his power to intend about it or control it).

The poem is not the critic's own.

Is not a critic," asks Professor Stoll, "a judge, who does not explore his own consciousness, but determines the author's meaning or intention, as if the poem were a will, a contract, or the constitution

Is not a critic," asks Professor Stoll, "a judge, who does not explore his own consciousness, but determines the author's meaning or intention, as if the poem were a will, a contract, or the constitution?

He intended to write a better work, or a better work of a certain kind, and now has done it. But it follows that his former concrete intention was not his intention.

We ought to impute the thoughts and attitudes of the poem immediately to the dramatic speaker, and if to the author at all, only by an act of biographical inference.

practical messages

Judging a poem is like judging a pudding or a machine.

If the poet succeeded in doing it, then the poem itself shows what he was trying to do.

design or intention as a standard by which the critic is to judge the worth of the poet's performance.

Intention has obvious affinities for the author's attitude

There is hardly a problem of literary criticism in which the critic's approach will not be qualified by his view of "intention."

THE CLAIM of the author's "intention" upon the critic's judgment has been challenged in a number of recent discussions,

the introduction of an interactive annotation component helped

Not only should digital reading be introduced more slowly into the curriculum; it also should be integrated with the more immersive reading skills that deeper comprehension requires.

If the online readers took notes on paper, however, the negative effects of Internet access were significantly reduced.

The students do not only differ in their abilities and preferences; they also need different sorts of training to excel at each medium. The online world, she argues, may require students to exercise much greater self-control than a physical book.

hose who had read the story in print fared significantly better, making fewer mistakes and recreating an over-all more accurate version of the story.

The reading has left more of an ephemeral experience,

Skimming, Liu concluded, had become the new reading: the more we read online, the more likely we were to move quickly, without stopping to ponder any one thought.

“The ergonomics, the haptics of the device itself. The tangibility of paper versus the intangibility of something digital.”

As children move more toward an immersion in digital media, we have to figure out ways to read deeply there.”

need to develop a very different sort of skill, that of teaching yourself to focus your attention.