Participants showed that CBPinconsistently screened or accounted for fear of return,trafficking, or age.

Policy Violations

Approximately 51percent reported that CBP did not explain the documentsthey signed (e.g., Form I-770) prior to their repatriationto Mexico, and nearly half reported not knowing whatforms they signed. Fourteen percent reported feelingforced or pressured to sign documents

CBP officials did nottreat them with respect or none did

Overall, the results demonstratethat CBP does not comply with the major policies articu-lated in the Flores Settlement, its internal guidelines, orthe TVPRA, as per the detention, screening, or repatria-tion of Mexican UAC.

Mexican UAC differently from UAC from noncontig-uous states

The federal government generally cannotdetain children for more than 20 days

economicopportunity, and to escape severe violence (UNHCR2014a).

. As nongovernmental organizations and human rights groups have documented, however, CBP hasrepeatedly violated these legal standards and policies, and subjected UAC to abuses and rights violations

351

64 percent AZ; 77 percent NM)

86 percent said that being American is very important to them (85 percent in AZ; 87 percentin NM),

As noted earlier, Arizona also mandates that English be used by stateemployees and limits the use of bilingual education schools.

What are the attitudinal effects of living in a more welcoming orunwelcoming subnational locale?

Other research shows thatminorities regard their ethnoracial and national identities as more compatible when they perceivethat the host community values their group

n spite of high levels of integration, continuesto navigate contexts in which politics and policies frame Latino ethnicity as “illegal” and fo

reflect trends in a “new federalism” of immi-gration policy playing out across the United States

are transferred to DHS and restructured to become three new agencies: USCustoms and Border Protection (CBP), US Immigration and Customs Enforcement(ICE), and US Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS)

1996

hus terminating the discretion of sentencing judgesto grant relief from deportation for criminal offenders.

Under these programs, roughly 2.7million people who were then illegally residing in the United States eventually become lawfulpermanent residents.

he law defines a “refugee” as any personoutside the person’s country of nationality who is unable or unwilling to return tothat country because of persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution on accountof race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or particularopinion.

The 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act (known as the Hart-Cellar Act) (79Stat. 911) abolishes the national-origins quota system and replaces it with a systemwhereby immigrants are admitted based on their relationship to a US citizen orlawful permanent resident family member or US employer. While caps are placedon the total number of immigrants who may be admitted each year in most family-based and employer-based categories, the law provides that there will be no cap onthe number of “immediate relatives” (spouses, parents, and minor children) of UScitizens admitted each year. Like immediate relatives, immigrants from the WesternHemisphere countries are also exempted from the law’s system of “preferencecategories” for those who are admitted. However, the law provides that beginning in1968, there will be a cap of 120,000 on the total number of permanent residents whomay be admitted from the Western Hemisphere.

by Nazi persecution to immigrate to the United States.The law also states that up to 15,000 individuals residing in the United States as ofApril 1, 1948 who meet the displaced person definition may adjust their status andbecome lawful permanent residents. President Truman signs the law “with very greatreluctance,” expressing concerns that the law’s requirements will exclude many Jewishrefugees

Students,nationals of Western Hemisphere countries, members of certain professions, and thewives and minor children of US citizens are exempted from the quotas.

nationals of Western Hemisphere countries are excluded from the quotas.

ough the law exempts students, as wellas certain professionals (e.g. teachers, government officers, lawyers, physicians, andchemists), and their wives and children.

and sentenced to one year of hardlabor

ee white persons

with a dignied face and an erect spine, then return to Germany and kill herselfwithout further words or fanfare

. You hear it all the time but that doesn’t mean it makessense. Whiskey is supposed to be bracing but what it is is awful. I want either teaor beer, no whiskey. Mary nods again and heads into the kitchen

My beloved second elder sister, I take my eternalleave of you

It’s November 1, 1991, the last day of the rst part of my life.

One by one. Behind black-rimmed glasses, he counts with his eyes. Ineach case the verdict is clear: not enough

. An hour later I go back andthe office is empty. When I erase the blackboard nally, I can see where she laidher hands carefully, where the numbers are ghostly and blurred

The mean landlady has evicted them

Caroline is cryingwhen she leaves, a combination of squirrel adrenaline and sadness

He wants me to reassure him that he’s strong enough to leave me

You have control over this,” he explains in his professor voice. “You can decidehow long she suffers

great dog

. “I have to talk to youright now,” he says grimly. “Where are you? I can never nd you.”“Try calling your own house,” I say to the machine. In his second message he hascomposed himself.“I’m ne now,” he says rmly. “Disregard previous message and don’t call me back,please; I have meetings.” Click, dial tone, rewind

This is an affront to the two younger dogs, who knowthe couch belongs to them; as soon as I settle in they creep up and nd theirplaces between my knees and elbows

Or that the dog at the bottom of the stairs keeps having mild strokes, which causeher to tilt her head inquisitively and also to fall over. She drinks prodigiousamounts of water and pees great volumes onto the folded blankets where shesleeps

he’s reduced himself to a troubled voice on the telephonethree or four times a day

Guys whose own lives are ticking like alarm clocks getting ready to go off,although none of us are aware of it yet

ake up. She’s staring at me with her head slightly tippedto the side, long nose, gazing eyes, toenails clenched to get a purchase on thewood oor. We used to call her the face of love.

deep-seated wound in yourself, a wound you are trying to heal using these children.

While I see much to admire

It’s simply time foryou to move on.

It’s not yourfault, but you may choose to take this misfortune as a sign of God’s displeasureand torture yourself with guilt and self-loathing for many years to come.

Ira and Isabelle

Dear Potential Mom,

We regret to inform you that it will be quite a while before you grow up,and it will take some cataclysmic events in your life before you really begi

We understand why you took refuge in themusic of the Grateful Dead, dancing until you felt yourself leave your body,caught up in their brand of enlightenment.

After all, who knew that the semester you decidedto come to uc Berkeley would be so tumultuous. That unsavory business withJim Jones and his Bay Area followers left us all reeling.

“grown into” your body yet. We wish you the best of luck infinding your niche elsewhere

Thank you for your application to be the girlfriend of one of our star basketballplayers.

We regret to inform you that no suitable match has been found to accompanyyou to the school dance.

Action on climate change requires trust in science, government and generalized socialtrust

They conclude that nationalismdepresses support for immigration, national policies to mitigate climate change, andinternational cooperation to that end

or to believe thatthey will suffer, both from climate mitigation policies that raise prices or reduce jobsin the carbon industries and from competition or threat from new immigrants

Research on how to scale up mental health resources to meet theneeds of sudden large numbers of disaster migrants is needed

society’sabsorption capacities

here is reason to believe that previous regular,measured and successful immigration paves the way for successful integration of refugeesand other immigrants who arrive suddenly and in greater numbers

this was driven primarilyby people in areas where the immigrants were not settling.

minorities and became less supportive of anti-immigration parties compared to individ-uals living farther away

be concentrated in order to maximize social network ties and co-ethnicsupport, creating an ethnic enclave, or dispersed in order to avoid overburdening receiv-ing communities, and providing more opportunities for immigrants and natives to inter-act?

here is a risk of native backlash againstthem.

5000 people relocated to Buffalo.Some went back, but many stayed. In the 2020 US Census Buffalo showed its first popu-lation increase in 70 years (National Academy of Sciences, Medicine and Engineering2024).

By leveraging what we know about migrants –that they send economic remittances in amounts that dwarf international economicaid, and that they create welcoming communities that ease the integration and furtherthe success of countrymen who follow, the use of visas for strategic migrants can benefi-cially shape future migration and help sending communities hit hardest by climatechange

Providing anumber of visas to countries that are experiencing severe climate change will seedfuture migration through social networks and support those unable to move who needto adapt in place through remittances.

Instead, they would just provide a path to perma-nent migration for a stream of migrants from the sending country, whether or not theindividual migrants report that they are experiencing adverse effects of climate change.

One avenue forward is that visas could be issued for countriesfacing all three types of migration – disaster, strategic, and managed retreat

how would strategic migrants establish that itis climate that caused them to move?

A new legal and bureaucratic category of a climate migrant would be very difficult, ifnot impossible to administer.

One ques-tion is whether we need a new legal category of migrant (Williams 2008).

trapped populations, people who cannot or will not move, butwhose adaptation in place will increasingly fail

ea level rise and destruc-tion of ecosystems and livelihoods will cause two types of migration: strategic migrationand managed retreat. Strategic migration is a choice made by individuals. It can beeconomically motivated or specifically because of a perception that staying in placewill be impossible or costly because of climate change (Castro 2023). Managed retreatis the organized movement of communities away from hazards. It will become inevitablein some places, like low lying island nations and other places that become uninhabitable,yet it is highly undesirable and often fiercely resisted

Thisproduces disaster migration. It is unplanned and rapid.

People generally move to places where they know people, where family orfriends have already settled

involving ‘conflict, disease, pol-itical change and economic crises’ (Kemp et al. 2022, 6). Should such large scale societaldisruptions occur, migration would surely follow

Estimating the volume of climate migration produces highly varied estimates. Ques-tions about how much the climate will warm, whether the effects will be linear or includetipping points that drastically change climate and cause sea level rise, the role of climatechange as a threat multiplier leading to conflict and government collapse, and the ways inwhich countries will adapt to rising numbers of potential migrants by closing or openingborders are all implicated in these estimates.

coping with the long-term integration of climate migrantsin the decades to come

argue that while climate migration will pose many chal-lenges, it also can be framed positively, and we can use what we know from migrationscholarship to craft policies and to further research that will lead to better outcomesfor both migrants and receiving communities

successful integration of largenumbers of migrants fleeing climate change should be a toppriority not least because this success will help to preserve thesocial trust that is necessary for successful climate mitigationefforts

is for richcountries to allocate extra visas to poorer countries that aresuffering the effects of climate migration, partly as reparations forclimate injustice.

Furthermore, TPS beneficiaries must reside and be physically present in the United States at the time ofa TPS designation to access protection

TPSis a blanket form of humanitarian relief which allows qualifying nationals of designated countries toremain in the United States and obtain work authorization.

facepersecution because of a lack of effective state protection

provide access to a durablestatus, work authorization, and naturalization;

While the asylum and refugeeprotection systems offer protection to some individuals impacted by climate change who have alsosuffered other persecution, there are no formal protection pathways for climate-displaced people underU.S. law. Temporary designations, such as humanitarian parole, do not offer a systemic response toprovide lasting protections to those displaced by climate change

Jozef said that after HBA replaced the tents destroyed by theJanuary 2023 bomb cyclone, additional rain storms in late February 2023 destroyed the new tents

migrants to cross dangerous terrain by foot, making them vulnerable to the adverseeffects of climate change along the journey to the United States-Mexico border

will further endanger asylumseekers and refugees, including those displaced in the context of climate change, by making themineligible for protection based solely on their manner of entry.

ransit through the country to reach the U.S.border,

asylum in 2015 after the government illegally appropriated their tribal lands,leaving them vulnerable to homelessness and gang violence

Several asylum seekers interviewed by the research teamreported that organized criminal groups had taken advantage of precarious conditions resulting fromclimate change to exploit their communities, including

recruiting people no longer able to supportthemselves.

pay extortion fees demanded by gangs controlling the area

The family fled after gang members killed the woman’s brother and uncle andkidnapped her husband.

manner and to a degree amounting to persecution

He toldthe research team that he had applied for government aid to rebuild his house, but that hisapplication was denied. “They left me with practically nothing,” he said.

A Mexican woman fleeing an abusive partner reported that her riverside community wasflooded by heavy rains in 2022, forcing her to close her travel agency business and impeding herability to support her children. The woman noted that there were more storms that forced theclosure of local businesses in 2022 than ever before

threats by gang members who killed her son reportedthat floods from heavy rains over the past two years destroyed her home and heavily damagedthe family’s chicken farm, leaving them without an income.

intersecting threats push people to seek safety across international borders.

Adopt climate-specific protection and resettlement pathways

he's just a big parrot

Henry

and while we took a certain joy inwatching her fall, it was disorienting to see her with so littleconfidence.

"Remember to turn off and unplug after use."

My sister's the type who religiously watches the fear segments of her local Eyewitness News broadcasts

omes arehighly reliant on the individual decision ma

edominantly conducted by an agenwhose fundamental mission has little to do with h

an "era of redefinition" andthat asylum claims henceforth could be decided without any foreign-policyinfluence

ips. However, the administration was ultimately unsuccessful in preving the development of a policy regime based firmly in legal advocacy. Leglessons, strategies, and best practices from the early successes and failures ofHaitian advocates were passed to Central American advo

ommunist, the Reagan administration portrathe asylum seekers as economic migrants, not as po

on clause. The Court concluded thatbecause the language of the statute did not discriminate based

85 found that "hostile statapplicants were 3491.4 percent more likely to obtain refugee status than wereapplicants from non-hostil

d: "We had a definition, but a lot of pressure not to ap

This was almost a footno

outh Florida. The program gave thegreat leeway to detain Haitians and quickly deny their asylum claims befreturning them to Ha

Nixon, and Carter used their executive authority to parole additional peobeyond that cap.18 As these actions became increasingly frequent, key memberCongress grew frustrated with what they viewed as an executive bypasslegislative authority over immigration admissions.19 To restore congressiooversight, a legislative revision appear

d States took afairly unilateral approach to refugee policy. The United States admitted peoplebased on its own refugee definition that paid homage to, but was much moreideologically restrictive than, the definition in the UN Refugee Convention. Mea

ef Act of 1953, which established its own Americrefugee resettlement bureaucracy and admitted 214,000 displaced people fEurope.1

to participate in the drafting of the 1951 UN Refugee Convention, but choseto ratify the Conv

ism. Third, in the1980s the field of asylum cause law grew in response to the resistance of PresidentReagan's Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) to implementing the 1980Refugee A

. Many Americans, myself included, believe in deporting unlawful immigranbut see a different imperative wit

Afaf, a mother of eight children, four of whom were inthe United States, also prepared food that the resettlement agency purchasedfrom her for arriving families.

The womenshared tea during their breaks, and on Fridays when there was no class, theyheld get-togethers, preparing meals of yogurt and bread fatta or eggs and falafelto share alongside strong Arabic coffee and black tea. These were spaces tounwind and crack jokes while listening to the latest in Arabic pop music,

While the demands ofthe self-sufficiency imperative were met by their spouses, women, includingRima, were able to attend English class.

Part of that involved shiftingtheir labor, as women and men.

Still, he did not expect this reaction from his employer. He thoughthe had been doing well and that he was well liked

The thread went dead after that. “They just wanta handout,” Nader said, shrugging.

However,this wasn’t advertised or promised, and the agency policy was to end finan-cial assistance after the Welcome Money was depleted or shortly thereafter.

Many new arrivals would not learn to identify with others who wereminoritized, nor would they identify their own position within the Americanracial hierarchy.

it wasfurther confirmed that the police were something to be avoided.18

unable todifferentiate what could be thrown away from what was consequential for thecontinuation of their assistance.

premise that the state is not responsible for mitigating the impacts ofthe market.14

so long as [the vettingprocess] is fully implemented and not diluted, it will allow us to safely admit themost vulnerable refugees while protecting the American.

projected 110,000 for2016 by President Obama to just 18,000 for 2021.

English classes at the high schoolshe attended in Syria

Their cities and family homes had long been destroyed by the war.Relinquishing additional parts of their identity felt traumatic

Mike Pence

International Organization for Migration (IOM)van.

because of theirrole in the crisis sparked by the 2003 US invasion and subsequent civil war

2017 wasdisplaced following the 2003 US invasion and the 2006–2008 Iraqi civil war,

the strategic interest of the US to shift the economic burden of supporting refugeesonto the Iranian government in order to weaken an adversarial regime

trans-border, ethnic and economic networkswere able to support large displacements in Iran and Pakistan

hese elements made localintegration and repatriation more practical options for the US policy towards Afghanrefugees. In addition, it was in the interest of Pakistan to offer temporary refuge forrefugees who doubled as insurgents battling the Afghan Government as their mutualenemy.

The US did not accept a broader responsibilityfor the millions displaced in Iran or Pakistan, instead funding humanitarian aid andrepatriation.

“With repatriation now a real possibility for manyAfghans and Iraqis, we expect to process [for resettlement] only extremely vulner-able refugees from those countries who cannot return to their homes.”

The US refugee policy in the region was to offer aid, rather than resettlement –some USD 26 million for food and local relief efforts in 1980, administered mostlythrough the Government of Pakistan and UNHCR.

I hypothesise that if the US is a closeally with a neighbour of Iraq or Afghanistan, it may prioritise the neighbouring coun-tries’ interests by resettling more refugees from the neighbouring territories.

less

his programme was, in part, a recognitionthat the US had a moral responsibility to support the Vietnamese refugees who werein danger because of US military actions

but rather the US relationships with the neighbouringcountries.

considered which Vietnamese to include inthe evacuation.

“escapees” or “defectors” and were used for their symbolic and propaganda value to“serve to embarrass enemy nations and discredit their political systems”

1) to undermine enemies by welcoming defectors, 2) to mitigate damagecreated by foreign policy failures, and 3) the politics of neighbours.

DHS officers traveling to Afghanistan and the surrounding region to process applica-tions. These two factors

security does not ex-plain why the US prioritised Iraqis and not Afghans

n this way, the differences in US refugee policy toward Iraqis and Afghans cannotbe explained by international law.

that countries interpret and apply international refugee law in different ways, leadingto large variations in asylum recognition rates

analysed as a foreign policy,taking into account strategic interests, geopolitical alliances, and regional dynamics.

Fundamentally, it is not American relationships with refugee-producing countries, but rather their neighbours – the refugee-receiving countries – thatdetermines how the US prioritizes refugee resettlement.

This article finds that US refugee policy isoften used as a foreign policy tool to pursue strategic interests within the politics of neigh-bours.

Since women control these employment networks – theyare spaces where men have little say or sway – it also enables them to command themigration processes associated with them

ne hundred years later, the colonial render-ings of Indigenous women as a racialized source of ‘degraded labor’ became incorporatedinto the post-revolutionary nation-building project

acialized because it was a uniquesphere of intimate interaction in which the difference between the mestiza (marked asthe employer) and the racially marked ‘other’

Finally,women also generated new forms of social capital through interactions with theiremployers and other women working in the same household or neighbourhood

They generated migration and employment networks in which they matched femalefriends and family with their employer’s contacts. Sandoval-Cervantes (2017) findsthat this helped migrant women develop a sense of autonomy and independence notfound in other migrant contexts at the time.

marriages or abusive part-ners.

, ‘Hey girls, will you help me? If Idon’t like it there, will you help me to come home? Help me pay for my return?’ Theyagreed

social capital through interactions with theiremployers and other women working in the same household or neighbourhood

When one of them, Teresa,returned to visit the family, Nachita recounts that she ‘wore shoes and a pretty dress.And I thought, well I can work too and have shoes too!’

Nachita told me about howyoung girls, mostly the poorest of the poor, migrated for work.

began to migrate tourban centres where they would engage in paid domestic work.

While post-revo-lutionary nationalist discourses and policies celebrated women as wives and mothers,domestic workers were expected to remain childless to better serve their employers.They were the invisible support aiding the growth and coherence of middle-class,mestizo, families

nabled Black and Chicana women to leavedomestic service and find other areas of employment.9 Meanwhile, immigrant women– mostly Mexican – took their place, especially in areas with high rates of Latino immi-gration.

could find jobs

but entire families were recruited to live in camps near agriculturalfields, often in squalid and exploitative situations

Drawing on previous employmentand social connections, they generated migrant networks through which they sharedimportant information about how to migrate and find to work, thus making migrationeasier for friends and family members to follow in their footsteps

inferior servants, and how this came to inform their migration patternswithin a particular moment of Mexico’s economic and political history

the dark underbelly of capitalism, its backstage operations where cheap and irre-gular labour is used up in the search for hyperprofit’

and racismenshrines the inequalities that capitalism requires.

‘cannot function if we all areallowed to become fully human’ (

They foundwork in one of the most devalued spheres of labour, domestic service

acial capitalism

Subsequently, they helped other women tomigrate.

specialty occupations

eyond permanent admissions, the United States also admits hundreds of thousands of workers,foreign students, and exchange visitors annually for temporary residence through a broad swath ofvisa categories, assigned letters of the alphabet from A through V. While temporary visas do not leaddirectly to a green card, temporary visa holders in some cases can get one if they are able to find afamily member or employer to sponsor them.

but was 12 years for relatives from the Philippines—and more than 21 yearsfor those from Mexico. As of November 2018, there were 3.7 million people waiting in line abroad for afamily-sponsored green card, and 121,000 awaiting an employment-sponsored green card

, randomly selecting winnerswho will be invited to apply for a green card if they meet some basic criteria

“Skilled workers” (foreign nationalscapable of performing skilled labor,requiring at least two years of experience)-- “Professional workers” (foreign nationalswho hold at least a baccalaureate degree)-- “Other workers” (foreign nationalscapable of performing unskilled labor

tacit