3 Matching Annotations
  1. May 2025
    1. The storytelling of Pausanias points to an untold number of moments for experiencing the erotic passion—as expressed by the “present” or imperfective aspect of the verb, erân, and by the imperfect tense of the verb apo-blepein ‘gaze away, look off into the distance’. Further, there is a divine force that presides over all these moments, embodied in the sacralized role of Aphrodite as the kataskopiā, ‘the one who is looking down from on high’.

      In this segment, Hippolytus exemplifies a nuanced heroism characterized by self-restraint and purity, as opposed to conquest or fervor. He reflects an ideal of self-control and moral integrity by rejecting the sexual advances made around him. Despite being the object of Phaedra’s passion, Hippolytus remains detached, embodying an almost divine aloofness. His resilience is rooted in this reluctance to be persuaded, essentially allowing him to stay beyond the tumult of erotic connection. Hippolytus' qualities help Pausanias investigate a model of heroism based on discipline and the preservation of personal boundaries.

    1. The Arabs were in control, however. The new state religion, Islam, imposed its own system of beliefs, laws, and social mores. In regions that submitted peacefully to Muslim rule, landowners kept their land. But crown land, land abandoned by fleeing owners, and land taken by conquest passed into the hands of the new state. This included the rich lands of the Sawad, a rich, alluvial plain in central and southern Iraq. Arabic became the official language of the court in 696, although Persian continued to be widely used as the spoken language. The shuubiyya literary controversy of the ninth through the eleventh centuries, in which Arabs and Iranians each lauded their own and denigrated the other's cultural traits, suggests the survival of a certain sense of distinct Iranian identity. In the ninth century, the emergence of more purely Iranian ruling dynasties witnessed the revival of the Persian language, enriched by Arabic loanwords and using the Arabic script, and of Persian literature.

      While the Arabs exercised political power and Islamized the state, the Persians held on to their culture and molded the emerging society. Though Arabic was adopted at court, Persian remained widely used and eventually became revived as a language of literature and administration. Conversely, the Arabs whose dominance rested on political might, Persians built a strong literary and cultural tradition which survived and developed under new rule. This contrast shows how the Persians, rather than the victors, inherited a strong legacy, blending their own and those of new ones. Their ability to maintain and revive their language and culture allowed them to shape the identity of the area in ways that endured even political conquest. Therefore, the Persians served as cultural heroes, holding and developing the civilization under the cover of Arab rule.

    1. Now when all was ready, Kay-Kavous bade Siawosh his son ride into the midst of the burning mount, that he might prove his innocence. And Siawosh did as the King commanded, and he came before Kay-Kavous, and saluted him, and made him ready for the ordeal. And when he came nigh unto the burning wood, he commended his soul unto God, and prayed that He would make him pure before his father. And when he had done so, he gave rein unto his horse, and entered into the flame.

      This incident serves as evidence of valiant bravery, as well as the unavoidable tragic outcome. Kay-Kavous's order for Siyavash to endure such a cruel test exposes the harsh and frequently nonsensical nature of the Shahnameh's legal system. Rather than resorting to dialogue or a fair trial, Siyavash is made to prove his innocence through a life-threatening trial by fire. In doing so, he displays an unshakable belief in his own virtue and submits to his father’s command without resisting. As he seeks purity before his father, his prayer to God prior to going into the flames demonstrates his strong belief in divine justice. Even though he is innocent, his entry into the fire represents the extent he will go to in order to protect his honor. This moment in specific reveals the inherent absurdity of the test, as Siyavash’s need to prove his virtue through such a drastic and senseless act speaks to a broader societal issue in which virtue is judged by unrealistic, and impractical measures. The irony is obvious that even though Siyavash lives unharmed, his good deeds and pure heart will not ultimately spare him from the fate that awaits him. His role as a tragic hero, virtuous and innocent yet still chained by a system which demands complex proof of his worth, is preserved as a testimony by this trial. Additionally, as a piece of the general story, the passage reflects traditional gender roles, and in this case it is the way masculinity is defined and/ tested in the context of heroism and honor.