1,381sawmillsin1840

In1832thePenobscotoutputwasnearly40,000,000feet,thatriverbeingthenfarintheleadofallothers,havingimmensetimberresourcesclosebygoodwaterandtheriverbeingnavi-gableforlargevesselstoBangoratthehead

In1890Mainehad894sawmillsandtimbercamps,employing11,540hands,

In1770theexportationofmasts,boards,staves,etc.,fromNewEnglandwasvaluedat45,000

urveyalloursaidWoodsandTimber;andalsoetomarksuchofthesaidTreesthatnoworhereaftershallbetinandpropertobetakenfortheuseofourNavy;andtokeepaRegisterofthesame;

1784Massachusettspassedalawtoprotectthewhitepineyetstandinguponthepubliclandsintheeasternforests(ofMaine),whichitcharacterizedas"byfarthenoblesttrees."Thepenaltyforcuttingthemwas$100atree,

allpinetreesfitformasts,twenty-fourinchesindiameterandupward,withinthreefeetoftheground,thatgrewmorethanthreemilesfromthemeetinghouse

drivenbywaterpower,andthesawingmachineryconsistedofanuprightsawinaframedrivenbyaconnectingrodfromacrankattachedtooneendofthewaterwheelshaft.

SalmonFallsRivernearthepresentcityofPortsmouth,NewHampshire,andbuiltsoonafterthelandwasgranted,in1631,

Thehistoryofthosewonderful,virginforestswhichstretchedfromtheSt.CroixRiverofMainetotheRedRiveroftheNorthhasalmostbeenfinished,andtheresurviveonlytheremnantsofthosegreatresourcesinscatteredgroupsoftreesorindecimatedwoodlands,

ndustrial Workers of the World (IWW

build without pine, and marvel at the thoughtless reckles�ness of his ancestors. .. f

hose given me a few

ousand acres of pine land along the Lake Huron coast, south of Saginaw Bay, and destroyed whole towns, many lives, and millioris of dollars' worth of property, the lumbering interests were utterly destroyed. Not a single mill, I am to-ld, in all that region has since been built. It was thought the fire had ruined the future of the bur

to be much greater than was formerly supposed. Clearings are being made, and good crops of Wheat, oa

when tbe pin

from the Saginaw Valley to the Straits of Mackinaw, sufficiently large to float a raft of logs, becomes a highway

conflict with EauClaire lumbermen, was the logging of the Chippewa River country, theuse of the river, and mastery of a great boom for handling the logs

By 1869 there were fifteen saw-mills at or near the Falls of St. Anthony. The Minneapolis lumber busi-ness leaped far beyond that of Stillwater as expansion continued in the1870s and 1880s. By 1890 Minneapolis, cutting close to a half billionfeet, was the premier lumber market not only of Minnesota but of theworld.

Stillwater continued itsdominance in the St. Croix region, sent 225 log rafts down river in 1869,and had nine mills in busy operation by 1874. The St. Croix Valleypersisted bountifully as a source of white pine. It did not reach its peakuntil 1895, when it produced 373,000,000 feet of lumber

1864-1906, thestate sold stumpage rights for a total of more than five million dollars.Dr. Folwell writes that the "number of millions of dollars lost to the state,especially to her school and university funds, by a vicious forest policyand unconscionable depredations will never be computed.

Funds and leadership from the East

it was a later generation that awakened to a realization that essen-tially the same timber yield could have been harvested from the Minne-sota forests in such fashion as to have averted their depletion.

pioneer Minnesota mills on the St. Croix River.

Orange Walker: Marine pioneer

the forest was inexhaustible, its natural destiny was firstto yield lumber and then to be cleared for producing cereal crops,and everyone's well-being would be promoted

condition of labor in general

When we speakof logging districts, we are speaking specifically of river systems,watersheds, the Ottawa in Ontario, the Saginaw in Michigan, theChippewa in Wisconsin. Pineries that were not well served by suchsystems had to await the completion of rail construction beforecontributing their produce.

the pinery reached from Lake Winnipeg on thenorth to the westernmost headwaters of the Mississippi on thesouth. Eastward to the ocean, with the important inclusion of theupper Mississippi and its Wisconsin tributaries, the pine regiongenerally encompassed the basin of the Great Lakes and St. Law-rence system, with the addition of most of Pennsylvania. Thus atits Atlantic breadth, it stretched from the head of Delaware Baynorthward to the mouth of the St. Lawrence

July 22, 1852, Wisconsin Congressman BenEastman informed his colleagues in the House of Representativesthat "Upon the rivers which are tributary to the Mississippi, and alsoupon those which empy themselves into Lake Michigan, there areinterminable forests of pine, sufficient to supply all the wants ofthe citizens . , . for all time to come" (Congressional Globe,1851-52).

widespread drought and fire in the Lake States, and was responsiblefor the development of the "Lake Forest" of white pine.

Samuel P. Hays is best knownfor his Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The ProgressiveConservation Movement, 1890-1920 (1959)

George Perkins Marsh, whose classic Man andNature, dealing with the role of man as a disturbing agent, was pub-lished in 1864 just as the onslaught on the Great Lakes forest wasbeginning.

All these theories had in common the notion ofdevelopment toward a mature or climax condition that wouldpersist indefinitely in equilibrium until some cataclysm

north of the effective limits of agriculture

the Great Lakes forest formeda distinct region in the westward advance of the logging empireduring the second half of the nineteenth century

a multidisciplinary consideration ofecological and institutional change in the forest environment ofthe upper Great Lakes region

TheopeningoftheErieCanal,in1825,gaveaccesstotheforestsofwesternNewYorkandtothewonderfulpineresourcesofMichiganastheydeveloped;butthroughitsOswegofeederitfurnishedaninlettotheCanadianproducttributarytoLakeOntario,and,inconnectionwiththeRideauCanal,furnishedanewrouteforOttawalumber

figuresforloggingcamps

valueofproducts

numberofestablishments

Aremarkableincreaseisnotedinthecapitalinvestedinthelumberindustry,especiallyfrom1880to1890.

atanearlydatethereweremillsasfarinlandasthesiteofAugusta,ontheKennebecRiver,inMaine,andasearlyas1682thereweresixsawmillsinKittery

itwasnotuntiltheopeningoftheErieCanalanditsfeeders,theWellandCanalandthecanalsconnectingtheSt.LawrenceviatheSorelRiverandLakeChamplainwiththeHudson,thatanylargeimportationofCanadianlumberwaspracticable

TheDingleylawof1897,

whiletitleandallnecessarydutiesandrightsrelatingtheretoremainedwiththeinteriordepartment,themanagementoftheforestreserves,assuch,wasconcentratedintheDepartmentofAgricultureasrepresentedbytheBureauofForestry,which,afterJuly1,was,bytheagri-culturalappropriationactofMarch3,1905,forthefiscalyearendedJune30,1906,erectedintothe"ForestService,"tobeginwithJuly1,1905

dirondackForestPreserve

ThegreatHinckleyforestfireof1894arousedthepeopleofMinne-sotatothenecessityofforestprotection

TheAmericanmethod,orrather,themethodmostgenerallyadoptedbytheforemostAmericanforesters,isnottheplantingoftreesinanopenfieldasonewouldplantturnips,butratheracontinuousselectionandcuttingofonlymaturetimber,

GiffordPinchot,

March2,1833,authorizingtheStateofIllinoistodiverthercanallandgranttothepurposeofconstructingarailroad.

MixedwiththewhitepinealmosteverywherewasredorNorwaypine(Pinusresinosa).Thiswasahappycombination,forwhatthewhitepinelackedinstrength'andhardnesstosuititforcertainstruc-turalandmanufacturinguses,wassuppliedbythisheavierwood,sothatfromearlytimestheywerecuttogetherandoftenmarketedto-gether.

FromtheearliesttimesinthehistoryoftheUnitedStatesuntilto-wardtheendoftheNineteenthCenturythenorthernconiferoustimberbeltconstitutedthebasisofthechiefsupplyofforestproductsforthedomestictradeofthecountryandalsoenteredlargelyintoforeigntrade,althoughanimportantcommercewasfoundedupontheyellowpineofthesouthAtlanticCoastandGulfstates.TheearlydiscoverersandexplorerswerestruckbythewealthoftheforestresourcesofthenorthAtlanticCoast,andparticularlywiththewhitepine,Pinusstrobus.Ashasbeenrelatedpreviously,theEnglishCrownmadereservationsofthetreesofthistimbersuitableforships,mastsandspars.ThewhitepinegrewinprofusioninNewEngland.Itwasseldomfoundinsolidbodiesofgreatextent,foritwasusuallymixedwithspruceandotherconifersandhardwoods,

thoughalmosteverywheremixedwiththebroad-leavedtrees,stretchesacrossNewEngland,NewYork,northernPennsylvania,MichiganandWisconsinandintoMinnesota.ThecontinuityofthisbeltisbrokenbyLakeErie.Disregardingtheinternationalboundary,itiscontinu-ouseastandwestacrossthenortheasternstates,Quebec,OntarioandthedistrictaroundLakeSuperior.

earlierestimatescoveredonlywhitepine,

PerhapsthemostremarkableexampleofmistakenestimatehasbeenregardingthepineforestsofMichigan,WisconsinandMinnesota.Thefirstattemptatacensusofthetimberofthesestateswasmadeinconnectionwiththecensusof1880.

Theestimateofstandingtimberhasbeenbasedupontheloggingcustomofthetime.Whenitwasthepracticetocutlargetimberonly,asinMichiganforexample,whensixteen-footlogswereofsuchasizethatitrequiredbuttwotofivetomakeathousandfeetboardmeasure,whenonlythebesttreeswerecutandonlythebestlogsfromthetreesweretakentothemill,leavingperhapstwoorthreetimesasmuchtimberincubiccontentsinthewoodsaswaspre-sentedtothesaw,theestimateastothequantityoftimberstanding

bestinformedstudentsofthesubjectbelieve,afterascarefulinvestigationsastheyhavebeenabletomake,thattheforestsyetremaining,ifoperatedalongconservativelines,wouldannuallyproduceinperpetuityanamountofforestproductslittle,ifany,morethanthepresentannualoutput.Ifthatbetrue,theUnitedStateshascometothepointwhereitcannolongerbelavishinitsuseofitswon-derfultimberresources,butmustrigorouslyconservethem

uptoabout1850,inmanyinstancesapositivedetriment.Forestsstoodonmillionsofacresoffertilelands

Ottawaregion,unliketheothersections,occupiesanenviableposition,inasmuchasithastheprivilegeofchoosingthebestofthreedifferentmarketsandcanshiptothemallbywaterconveyancetotheUnitedStates,toEurope,ortoSouthAmericaandAustralia.

TheGrandOttawaisaverylargeandimportantriver,over750milesinlength,anddraininganareaof80,000squaremiles.Itreceivesmanytributariesvaryingfrom100to400milesinlength.Thewholevalleyhasbeen,andisnow,mostlycoveredwithdenseforestsofwhitepineandredpine,

twenty-ninemills,mostlyoflimitedcapacity,togetherwiththirteenquiteinsignificantones,send70,000,000feetoflumberandlogs(embracingsomesquareandsparrafts)toCleveland,Erie,BuffaloandTonawanda.

millsofRatPortage,RainyRiver,FortFrancesandothercentersintheRainyRiverdistrict

MichiganlumbermenarelargelyinterestedinlumberingoperationsandtimberpropertiesintheGeorgianBaydistrictofOntario.About1890lumbermenintheSaginawdistrictbeganmakinginvestmentsinCanadianpine,andincreasinglylargequantitiesofCanadianlogswereraftedtoeasternMichiganmills80,000,000feetin1891,300,000,000in1894and238,843,024in1898.

LargequantitiesofsawlogswerebeingexportedtofeedMichiganmills

WiththedepletionofthepineforestsinMichiganthedependenceoftheAmericanconsumeruponCanadaforaportionofthelumbersupplyincreased.ItbecametheinterestoftheAmericanmanufacturertosecurethissupplyasfaraspossibleintheformofrawmaterialtobeworkedupintheAmeri-cansawmillsinthoselocalitieswherethedomesticforestsnolongerremainedwithinaccess.ItwasequallytheinterestoftheCanadianstoexporttheirforestproductinashighlymanufacturedaformaspos-sible.

Fallingoffduringtheprotractedperiodofworldwidedepressionwhichfollowed,itincreasedagainin1880

prosperityreacheditsclimaxin1873,andwasthetimeoftheriseofthegreatlumberingindustryofMichigan,Wiscon-sinandMinnesota,w

About1870theindustrywasmainlycenteredintheOttawaValleyandontheupperwatersoftheTrentRiverandwaterstributarytotheGeorgianBay.

AmericanCivilWar,andthelavishexpenditureswhichresulted,createdagreatdemandforCanadianlumberathighprices,

increasingdemandsoftheUnitedStatesforCanadianlumber.

1835and1836speculatorscameoverfromMaineandNewYorkandpurchasedaboutamillionacresoflandsaidtobewoodedwithpineorspruce.

therewasnowbutlittlepineleftintheUnitedStatesexceptinMaineandCarolina,

nolandshouldbeallottedtosettlersuntilthedistricthadbeensur-veyedandthosepartscontainingmastingorothertimberfitfortheuseoftheroyalnavyreserved

In1807Mr.WrighttookthefirstraftofsquaretimberdowntheOttawatoQuebec.

ThepioneerinthetimbertradeoftheOttawaValleywasPhilemonWright,anadventurousAmerican,

ThewatershedoftheOttawaembracesaregionofabout80,000squaremiles,muchofitgoodagriculturalland,andproducingorigin-allysomeofthefinestpinetimberintheworld.

TheseignioryofLotbiniere,intheProvinceofQuebec,isoneoftheoldestinCanada,havingbeeninthepossessionofthedeLotbi-nierefamilysincetheyear1673.TheseignioryissituatedontherightbankoftheSt.LawrenceRiver,aboutfortymileswestoftheCityofQuebec,andembracesanareaof87,000acresofforest.

thefamousMontmorencysawmills,atthefootoftheFallsofMontmorency,neartheCityofQuebec.

timberimportedintoLowerCanadafromLakeChamplainfrom1800to1820included10,997,580feetofredandwhitepine,3,935,443feetofoaktimber,34,573,853feetofpineplankand9,213,827feetofpineboards.

uptothetimeoftheconstructionoftheChamplainCanal,connectingLakeChamplainwiththeHudsonRiver,whichwascompletedin1822,andoftheOs-wegoCanal,connectingLakeOntarioatOswegowiththeErieCanalatSyracuse,N.Y.,completedin1828,timbergrownontheSt.Law-rencewatershedofNewYork,VermontandNewHampshire,largelywenttoMontrealorQuebecandthenceabroad

St.Lawrencewatersys-tem,reachingfromtheheadofLakeSuperiortotheAtlantic,withthenever-failingstreamsflowingintoitfromthenorth,givesanadequateoutletforthetimberandlumberproductionofQuebecandOntario,whiletheMaritimeProvinces,withtheirdeeplyindentedcoasts,findmarinetransportationsufficient

Withintherough.triangleboundedbytheOttawaRiveronthenortheast,GeorgianBayandLakeHurononthewestandLakeErieandLakeOntarioonthesouth,

TheHeightofLand,whichisthedividingridgeorboundarylinebetweenthewaterswhichflowintoHudsonBayorintotheAtlan-ticnorthoftheStraitofBelleIsle,andthosewhichbytheGreatLakesfindtheirwaythroughtheSt.Lawrencetotheocean,marksasome-whatclearlydefinednorthernboundaryofthemostvaluablesoftwoods.Southofthatlinearefoundwhiteandredpine,hemlock,tamarack,spruce,etc.,ofsizeswhichfitthemforsawmilluse.Northofthatlinewhiteandnorwaypinepracticallydisappearandotherspeciesdecreaseinsizeasonegoesnorthuntil,ofcommercialwoods,spruceofdiminishedsizeisleftstandinginacontinuousforest,ex-tendingtoHudsonBay

AmericancapitalistransformingthelumberbusinessofNewfound-land.Acorporation,TheTimberEstatesCompany,headedbyH.M.Whitney,ofBoston,Massachusetts,acquiredseveralofthelargestpropertiesintheislandandin1904

historyofthelumberindustryforthelumbertradeasabranchofcommercewasalaterdevelopmentisthehistoryofprogress,ofsettlementandofcivilization.

he first logging railroad in Beltrami County was built in 1898 from Nebish northward to Red Lake, a distance of fifteen miles. The road was operated by the Red Lake Transportation Company, which also had a steamboat line across Red Lake. Large amounts of logs were hauled to Red Lake for the Walke

ometimes a demand for tiemakers and laborers on a railroad project competed with the need for men in the woods and raised wage levels. In 1901 wages with board for sawyers were thirty to thirty-five dollars per month; for teamsters, thirty-five to forty-five; for cooks, forty to eighty; for blacksmiths, forty to sixt

ith the approach of the logging season each fall, hordes of men arrived seeking work in the woods. "They come on every train, on foot, and on horseback," reported a Bemidji newspaper in December, 1900. "For a month past, trains from the west dump their passen gers at Bemidji and give our streets the appearance of an Oklahoma land rush

n unsuccessful attempt was made by Bemidji civic and business leaders to induce Walker to build a sawmill in their city.

avorable sites for saw mills.

Bemidji was the largest. Rough wagon trails linked the com

ntil a man-made highway ? the railroad ? was built, no extensive logging operations were possible in the Mississippi headwaters region

amboats plied the Red Lake River with supplies for the logging camps along that stream, while the railhead at Fosston

ed Lake Falls, Crookston, and Grand Forks, th

ginning in the St. Croix Valley in the 1830's, t

CrookstonandGrandForks,

CrookstonandGrandForks,

Butler&Walker.

In1868,Mr.Walkerformedacom-binationwithLeviButlerandHowardW.Millstoexploitthelumberregions

Sept.11,1895Abouteightyearsago,Ienteredin-T?^.PartnershipagreementwithMr.T.B.Walkerforthepurposeofbuyingandhandlingpinetimber,logsandlum-ber.Ipurchasedanundividedhalfin-terestinalargetractthatMr.Walkerowned,andfurnishedmeanstopur-chaseothertracts;wejointlyownedbetweentwoandthreehundredthous-andacres.Mr.Walker

Duringthelastfortyyearshehasalmostcontinuallyemployedanarmyoflaborersinandabouthissawmill,constructinglargebuildingsorworkingatotherenterprises,yethehasneverhadastrikeamonghisemployesnorhastherebeenanydissatisfactionwiththetreatmenttheyhavereceivedorthewagespaid.Foryearsthesawmillsinthenorthwestwereoperatedelevenandtwelvehoursaday.Mr.Walker,however,neverhadthemeninhismillworkmorethantenhoursandpaidthemthemaximumwagesthathaveprevailed.

eldestdaughterofMr.andMrs.WalkeristhewifeofErnestF.Smith,presidentoftheHennepinLumberCompany,

GilbertM.Walker,hadthecontrcjlandman-agementoftheextensivelumberingandloggingbusinessontheClearwaterriverandthemillsatCrookstonandGrandForks.

extremelysensitivetemperamentandkeenlyfeelsanyunjustcriticism.

combinationorconspiracyintendedvorestraintrade

Thegreedytaxsharkandtheexigenciesofthetimes,

SoonaftermigratingtotheNorthStarstate,hewasaffordedanop-portunityofrealizingthecomingvalueofthelargevirginforeststhatgrewalongthenorthernborder.

severetaskmaster,

romanceofafatherlessboywho,bydeterminationandperseverance,hasbecomeanhonoredandrespectedcitizenandanimportantandusefulfactorintheindustrial,educationalandfinancialworld.

“Authorities” by their nature are untrustworthy.

The people who want to add a censorship regime to a health crisis are more dangerous and more stupid by leaps and bounds than a president who tells people to inject disinfectant.

H.L. Mencken once said that in America, “the general average of intelligence, of knowledge, of competence, of integrity, of self-respect, of honor is so low that any man who knows his trade, does not fear ghosts, has read fifty good books, and practices the common decencies stands out as brilliantly as a wart on a bald head.”

private allocators of public capital taking a direct governing role

private institutions who govern in their stead.

American institutions are organized entirely around the short-term horizon of financiers

The

Herbert Hoover

an America uncomfortable with having democratic institutions take care of its people

clarification usually takes a few years, because we have to let the illusions drop

Walter Cronkite, trusted by millions

modified one-party system

When winning the majority becomes possible, the logic of cooperation dissolves.

political histories tend to be presidential histories

Whose grievances get heard?

self-described independents who tended to vote for one party or the other were driven more by negative motivations.

We are a collection of functional parts whose efforts combine into a dysfunctional whole

hopeful about Obama

We focus on their genius

Introduction

instea

White

Which came first: geology theories or religious doctrines? Neither

an active hand

God was activ

Whiggish

two epistemological schools

catastrophist

de Luc had the funding

o find more t

Biblical criticism

moral view

a clear basis in nature in combination with the account of the Bible

enough if it cannot be proved impossible

Indian philosophe

synchronistic

Anglicans

the millenium coming faster

share a friendship

Scottish Enlightenmen

deistic beliefs

heat in bodies

otherworldly intervention.

late enough

I would like to offer

temporality

the binary geological

publishing of The Origin of Species

redibility,

disseminated and then reconciled

hosen episteme

visibility of two trends

this viewpoint

I am in agreement

knowledge from science and from religion as equals

“socio-political” tool

cris[es] of faith

n the historiography

whole denominations’

are

More recently,

replication of the face-to-face inter

Access Compromise

can the community call anyone’s behavior “openwashing” if it conforms with the international standard-setting instrument’s definition of OER?

free and perpetual, which were clearly articulated in the public draft, have been inexplicably removed in the final version

I added retain as the 5th R after coming to understand that retain is actually the fundamental permission that must be granted with regard to an open educational resource.

three-quarters of college students who attend public institutions

Why not both

College graduates account for a third of American entrepreneurs

college earnings premium is at an all-time high

they make the places they live and work more productive

retooling their skills

college diploma or an advanced degree is a key to economic success

will require cultivating their skills

transformed American higher education from a province of the privileged into a shared commitment to our future

educated citizenry emerged and a skilled workforce

we cannot wall ourselves off in exclusive silos that separate the types of education and the different job markets

higher education with increasing entrepreneurship and higher productivity,

March2019

My own university estimates that first-year students can expect to pay between $2,290 and $4,100 for books and supplies.

the overwhelming majority of faculty have no formal training whatsoever in teaching and learning.

open textbook publishers may have actually been reinforcing publishers’ messages

leveraged faculty’s widespread lack of understanding of instructional design to redefine “quality.”

effective instructional design

Me: If I cross out these lines about the publisher’s copyright and write “Licensed CC BY” above it, have I made this book more effective at supporting student learning? Student: (ponders briefly) I guess not?

each become more focused on executing the strategies aligned with our specific goal

critically examine all of our assumptions about conferences

as currently constituted, the conference does not leverage all the energy, enthusiasm, passion, and leadership ability in our increasingly large and increasingly diverse community

at least the last with him at the helm

potentially acquire new students, programs, geographic reaches