In general, counties with higher poverty segregation (no matter thecomparison groups) have higher densities of industrial facilities. A clearer stepwiserelationship is seen when comparing those counties with greater spatial segregationbetween wealthy White neighborhoods and impoverished African American neighbor-hoods, with those counties in the highest decile of segregation having an average o

Additionally, those tracts which have a higherpercentage of their population employed are less likely to have a higher density of indus-trial facilities located in their tract

but these highly segregatedcounties tend to have facilities located disproportionately in census tracts with moreAfrican Americans and Hispanics.

Overall, they found that the share of pollu-tion experienced by ethnic or racial minority groups typically exceeds the share ofemployment a facility provides to those groups

Thus, fence-line communities are exposed to the environmental harms of industrial facilities butreap little or none of the economic benefits

they foundhouseholds located nearer to a facility were significantly poorer 10 and 20 years aftera facility moved in.

aha and Mohai (2005) found areas within one mile of a

Bullard et al. (2007) demonstrated that populationswithin 3 kms of polluting facilities have 1.5 times higher poverty rates and 15% lowermean annual household incomes than communities without facilities.

residents living in more racially segre-gated metro areas have higher health risks from air toxics than those in less segregatedmetro areas.

In the South,where the nation’s nonmetropolitan African American population isprimarily located, the out-migration of nonpoor African Americans inthe late 1980s to the metropolitan South, coupled with reduced out-migration of poor African Americans to the North, appears to havereinforced existing African American poverty concentrations in the ruralSouth (Fuguitt and Fulton 2001).

Rather, residential relocation among householdscharacterized by persistent economic insecurity tends to occur acrosspoor places and is largely motivated by mobility pushes to (re)securehousing after unexpected social or economic shocks, rather than bymobility pulls toward economic opportunity.

Because these opportunitiesare typically concentrated in other poor counties, the poor tend to movedisproportionately to these places instead of moving toward economicopportunities in nonpoor places (as neoclassical theories wouldpredict), or remaining largely immobile (as human capital theorieswould predict)

Yet the poor disproportionatelymoved to other poor places rather than places of economic growth, aspredicted by neoclassical theory.

Coupled with the strong out-migration rates of the nonpoor from the poorest counties, these migra-tion patterns served to cumulatively reinforce existing concentrations ofpoverty

poverty concentrations are largelyexplained away as temporary phenomena created by a lag in the naturaladjustment of migration flows to higher wages elsewhere

Thus, the human capitalperspective assumes that migration may deepen poverty concentrationsbecause the poor are more likely to remain immobile in poor placeswhile the nonpoor are more likely to move away

Because many areasof concentrated poverty found in nonmetropolitan areas are composedof high percentages of African Americans or Latinos, we also investigatehow the migration flows of both minority groups affect the spatial dis-tribution of race- and ethnic-specific poverty.

Spatial concentrations of poverty were not eliminated as a resultof these trends, but declines in various poverty populations reducedoverall the number of poor living in extremely poor counties (Jargowsky2003; Lichter and Johnson 2007)

How hard a thing is life to the lowly, and yet how human and real!And all this life and love and strife and failure,—is it the twilight of nightfall or the flush of somefaint-dawning day?

Thehill became steep

“We’ve had a heap of trouble sinceyou’ve been away.” I had feared for Jim

from a common hardship in poverty, poor land, and low wages; and,above all, from the sight of the Veil that hung between us and Opportunit

w Josie had bought the sewing-machine; how Josie worked at service in winter, but that four dollars a month was “mighty little”

ut people said that he would surely fail, and the “white folks wouldget it all.”

fine faith the children had in the wisdom of their teacher was truly marvellou

There was an entrance where adoor once was, and within, a massive rickety fireplace; great chinks between the logs served aswindows. Furniture was scarce. A pale blackboard crouched in the corner. My desk was made ofthree boards, reinforced at critical points, and my chair, borrowed from the landlady, had to bereturned every night. Seats for the children—these puzzled me muc

“Oh,” thought I, “this is lucky”; but even then fell the awful shadow of the Veil, for they ate first,then I—alone

that but once sincethe war had a teacher been there; that she herself longed to learn,—and thus she ran on, talkingfast and loud, with much earnestness and energy

white teachers inthe morning, Negroes at night.

So far as Mr. Washington preaches Thrift, Patience,and Industrial Training for the masses, we must hold up his hands andstrive with him, rejoicing in his honors and glorying in the strength ofthis Joshua called of God and of man to lead the headless host

Mr. Washington not to acknowledge that inseveral instances he has opposed movements in the South which wereunjust to the Negro

when in fact the burden belongs to the nation, and the hands of none ofus are clean if we bend not our energies to righting these great wrongs

Discriminating and broad-minded criticism is what theSouth needs,—needs it for the sake of her own white sons and daughters,and for the insurance of robust, healthy mental and moral development

Wehave no right to sit silently by while the inevitable seeds are sown for aharvest of disaster to our children, black and white.

Negroes mustinsist continually, in season and out of season, that voting is necessaryto modern manhood, that color discrimination is barbarism, and thatblack boys need education as well as white boys.

They advocate,with Mr. Washington, a broad system of Negro common schools sup-plemented by thorough industrial training; but they are surprised thata man of Mr. Washington’s insight cannot see that no such educationalsystem ever has rested or can rest on any other basis than that of the well-equipped college and university, and they insist that there is a demandfor a few such institutions throughout the South to train the best of theNegro youth as teachers, professional men, and leaders.

for where in the world may we go and be safe fromlying and brute force?

If history and reason give any distinct answer tothese questions, it is an emphatic No. And Mr. Washington thus facesthe triple paradox of his career

First, political power,Second, insistence on civil rights,Third, higher education of Negro youth,—and concentrate all their energies on industrial education, and accu-mulation of wealth, and the conciliation of the South

Mr. Washington’s programme practicallyaccepts the alleged inferiority of the Negro races

Naturallythe Negroes resented, at first bitterly, signs of compromise which surren-dered their civil and political rights, even though this was to be exchangedfor larger chances of economic development

ised blacks, and they soon found themselves striving to keepeven the rights they formerly had of voting and working and movingas freemen. Schemes of migration and colonization arose among them;but these they refused to entertain, and they eventually turned to theAbolition movement as a final refu

insurrection,—in 1800 under Gabriel in Virginia, in 1822 under Veseyin Carolina, and in 1831 again in Virginia under the terrible Nat Turner.In the Free States, on the other hand, a new and curious attempt atself-development was made. In Philadelphia and New York color-pre-scription led to a withdrawal of Negro communicants from whitechurches and the formation of a peculiar socio-religious institutionamong the Negroes known as the African Church,—an organizationstill living and controlling in its various branches over a million of men

If the best of the AmericanNegroes receive by outer pressurea leader whom they had not recog-nized before, manifestly there is herea certain palpable gain

Among his own people, however, Mr. Washington has encounteredthe strongest and most lasting opposition, amounting at times to bit-terness, and even today continuing strong and insistent even thoughlargely silenced in outward expression by the public opinion of thenation. Some of this opposition is, of course, mere envy; the disappoint-ment of displaced demagogues and the spite of narrow minds. But asidefrom this, there is among educated and thoughtful colored men in allparts of the land a feeling of deep regret, sorrow, and apprehension atthe wide currency and ascendancy which some of Mr. Washington’stheories have gained. These same men admire his sincerity of purpose,and are willing to forgive much to honest endeavor which is doingsomething worth the doing. They cooperate with Mr. Washington asfar as they conscientiously can; and, indeed, it is no ordinary tribute tothis man’s tact and power that, steering as he must between so manydiverse interests and opinions, he so largely retains the respect of all

his educational programme was un-necessarily narrow.

d training, so by singular insight he intuitively grasped the spiritof the age which was dominating the North. And so thoroughly didhe learn the speech and thought of triumphant commercialism, andthe ideals of material prosperity, that the picture of a lone black boyporing over a French grammar amid the weeds and dirt of a neglectedhome soon seemed to him the acme of absurdities.

This “Atlanta Compromise” is by all odds the most notable thing inMr. Washington’s career. The South interpreted it in different ways: theradicals received it as a complete surrender of the demand for civil andpolitical equality; the conservatives, as a generously conceived workingbasis for mutual understanding.

His programme of industrial education, conciliationof the South, and submission and silence as to civil and political rights,was not wholly original; the Free Negroes from 1830 up to war-time hadstriven to build industrial schools, and the American Missionary Associ-ation had from the first taught various trades; and Price and others hadsought a way of honorable alliance with the best of the Southerners. ButMr. Washington first indissolubly linked these things; he put enthusiasm,unlimited energy, and perfect faith into his programme, and changed itfrom a by-path into a veritable Way of Life

His programme of industrial education, conciliationof the South, and submission and silence as to civil and political rights,was not wholly original;

ascendancy

Our pathway must be up through the soil, up throughswamps, up through forests, up through the streams, therocks, through commerce, education, and religion

“We must incorporate into our public school systema larger recognition of the practical and industrialelements in educational training. Ours is anagricultural population. The school must be broughtmore closely to the soil. The teaching of history, forexample, is all very well, but nobody can really knowanything of history unless he has been taught to seethings grow–has so seen things not only with theoutward eye, but with the eyes of his intelligenceand conscience. The actual things of the present aremore important, however, than the institutions ofthe past. Even to young children can be shown thesimpler conditions and processes of growth–howcorn is put into the ground–how cotton andpotatoes should be planted–how to choose the soilbest adapted to a particular plant, how to improvethat soil, how to care for the plant while it grows,how to get the most value out of it, how to use theelements of waste for the fertilization of othercrops; how, through the alternation of crops, theland may be made to increase the annual value ofits products–these things, upon their elementaryside are absolutely vital to the worth and success ofhundreds of thousands of these people of theNegro race, and yet our whole educational systemhas practically ignored them.* * * * * *“Such work will mean not only an education inagriculture, but an education through agricultureand education, through natural symbols andpractical forms, which will educate as deeply, asbroadly and as truly as any other system which theworld has known. Such changes will bring far largerresults than the mere improvement of our Negroes.They will give us an agricultural class, a class oftenants or small land owners, trained not awayfrom the soil, but in relation to the soil and inintelligent dependence upon its resources

The Negro in the South worksand works hard; but too often his ignorance and lack ofskill causes him to do his work in the most costly andshiftless manner, and this keeps him near the bottom ofthe ladder in the economic world

who will prove by actual resultstheir value to the community, I cannot but believe, I say,that this will constitute a solution to many of the presentpolitical and social diculties

drudgery.

In fact, public sentiment among the students at Tuskegeeis now so strong for industrial training that it wouldhardly permit a student to remain on the grounds whowas unwilling to labor

Not only do the students receive instruction in thesetrades, but they do actual work, by means of which morethan half of them pay some part or all of their expenseswhile remaining at the school. Of the sixty buildingsbelonging to the school all but four were almost whollyerected by the students as a part of their industrialeducation. Even the bricks which go into the walls aremade by students in the school’s brick yard, in which, lastyear, they manufactured two million bricks.

We began teaching wheelwrighting and blacksmithing ina small way to the men, and laundry work, cooking andsewing and housekeeping to the young women. Thefourteen hundred and over young men and women whoattended the school during the last school year receivedinstruction — in addition to academic and religioustraining — in thirty–three trades and industrie

I would set no limits to the attainments of the Negro inarts, in letters or statesmanship, but I believe the surestway to reach those ends is by laying the foundation in thelittle things of life that lie immediately about one’s door. Iplead for industrial education and development for theNegro not because I want to cramp him, but because Iwant to free him. I want to see him enter the all-powerfulbusiness and commercial world

Without industrial development there can be nowealth; without wealth there can be no leisure; withoutleisure no opportunity for thoughtful reection and thecultivation of the higher arts.”

but Iwould teach the race that in industry the foundationmust be laid–that the very best service which any one canrender to what is called the higher education is to teachthe present generation to provide a material or industrialfoundation. On such a foundation as this will grow habitsof thrift, a love of work, economy, ownership of property,bank accounts. Out of it in the future will grow practicaleducation, professional education, positions of publicresponsibility. Out of it will grow moral and religiousstrength. Out of it will grow wealth from which alone cancome leisure and the opportunity for the enjoyment ofliterature and the ne art

And just the same with theprofessional class which the race needs and must have, Iwould say give the men and women of that class, too, thetraining which will best t them to perform in the mostsuccessful manner the service which the race demands

It is discouraging to nd agirl who can tell you the geographical location of anycountry on the globe and who does not know where toplace the dishes upon a common dinner table. It isdiscouraging to nd a woman who knows much abouttheoretical chemistry, and who cannot properly wash andiron a shirt

Our schools teach everybody a little of almosteverything, but, in my opinion, they teach very fewchildren just what they ought to know in order tomake their way successfully in life. They do not putinto their hands the tools they are best tted to use,and hence so many failures. Many a mother andsister have worked and slaved, living upon scantyfood, in order to give a son and brother a ’liberaleducation,’ and in doing this have built up a barrierbetween the boy and the work he was tted to do.Let me say to you that all honest work is honorablework. If the labor is manual, and seems common,you will have all the more chance to be thinking ofother things, or of work that is higher and bringsbetter pay, and to work out in your minds betterand higher duties and responsibilities foryourselves, and for thinking of ways by which youcan help others as well as yourselves, and bringthem up to your own higher level.

Our schools teach everybody a little of almosteverything, but, in my opinion, they teach very fewchildren just what they ought to know in order tomake their way successfully in life. They do not putinto their hands the tools they are best tted to use,and hence so many failures. Many a mother andsister have worked and slaved, living upon scantyfood, in order to give a son and brother a ’liberaleducation,’ and in doing this have built up a barrierbetween the boy and the work he was tted to do.Let me say to you that all honest work is honorablework. If the labor is manual, and seems common,you will have all the more chance to be thinking ofother things, or of work that is higher and bringsbetter pay, and to work out in your minds betterand higher duties and responsibilities foryourselves, and for thinking of ways by which youcan help others as well as yourselves, and bringthem up to your own higher level.

“Our schools teach everybody a little of almosteverything, but, in my opinion, they teach very fewchildren just what they ought to know in order tomake their way successfully in life

“Our schools teach everybody a little of almosteverything, but, in my opinion, they teach very fewchildren just what they ought to know in order tomake their way successfully in life

s a generation began to pass,those who had been trained as mechanics in slaverybegan to disappear by death, and gradually it began to berealized that there were few to take their places. Therewere young men educated in foreign tongues, but few incarpentry or in mechanical or architectural drawing.

The industriesthat gave the South its power, prominence and wealthprior to the Civil War were mainly the raising of cotton,sugar cane, rice and tobacco.

For two hundred and fty years, I believe the way for theredemption of the Negro was being prepared throughindustrial development. Through all those years theSouthern white man did business with the Negro in a waythat no one else has done business with him. In mostcases if a Southern white man wanted a house built heconsulted a Negro mechanic about the plan and aboutthe actual building of the structure. If he wanted a suit ofclothes made he went to a Negro tailor, and for shoes hewent to a shoemaker of the same race. In a certain wayevery slave plantation in the South was an industrialschool. On these plantations young colored men andwomen were constantly being trained not only as farmersbut as carpenters, blacksmiths, wheelwrights, brickmasons, engineers, cooks, laundresses, sewing womenand housekeepers

If, in too many cases, the Negro race begandevelopment at the wrong end, it was largely becauseneither white nor black properly understood the case.Nor is it any wonder that this was so, for never before inthe history of the world had just such a problem beenpresented as that of the two races at the coming offreedom in this countr

proper cultivation and ownership of the soil.