The omnibus test statistic, Pillai’s Trace, indicated the presence of a significant group difference among the log lobe volumes (F = 2.886, df = 4,37; p = 0.040).

ID: 001
Value: log lobe vol
Variable: diagnosis
ModelID: Pillai's Trace
F: 2.886
DF: 4, 37
P: 0.040

Cerebellar white matter was significantly larger in the ALI group (28.2 cc) than in the SLI group (25.1 cc), F(3,38) = 3.0, p = 0.04, contrast t(38) = 2.96, p < 0.005.

ID: 002
Variable: cerebellar WM vol
Group: ALI
Cerebellar WM Vol: 28.2
Units: cc

ID: 003
Variable: cerebellar WM vol
Group: SLI
Cerebellar WM Vol: 25.1
Units: cc
ID: 004
Variable: cerebellar WM vol, diagnosis
Group: ALI, SLI
F: 3.0
DF: 3, 38
P: 0.04
ContrastDF: 38
ContrastT: 2.96
ContrastP: <0.005
*Break into test of all groups, then contrast is ALI SLI

The contrast between ALI (18.4% white matter) and SLI (17.3% white matter) showed a moderate effect, t(38) = 1.96, p = 0.06.

ID: 006
Group: ALI
WMPercentage: 18.4

ID: 007
Group: SLI
WMPercentage:17.3
ID: 008
Variable: WMPercentage
TestID: TTest
T: 1.96
DF: 38
P: 0.06

Though moderate, there was a trend toward a similar pattern in the left VIIA Crus I, where SLI was 1.3 cc smaller than ALI (overall F(3, 38) = 2.0, p = 0.1; contrast t(38) = 1.7, p = 0.09)

ID: 014
Variable: LeftVIIA Crus I Volume
Interpretation: SLI Right VIIA CRUS I Volume was 1.3 cc smaller than that of ALI.

ID: 015
Variable: Left VIIA Crus I Volume
StatID:
DF: 3, 38
F: 2.0
P: 0.1
ContrastDF: 38
ContrastT: 1.7
ContrastP: 0.09

Twenty-nine of 42 subjects (69%) had either lobule VIIIA larger in right hemisphere with IFG larger in left, or lobule VIIIA larger in left hemisphere with IFG larger in right. Among this subset, the ALN and NC groups tended to have the former, while the ALI and SLI subjects tended to have the latter, X2(1, N = 29) = 6.7, p < 0.01. A comparison including all subjects was also significant, X2(3, N = 42) = 8.2, p = 0.04, which includes subjects where both symmetry coefficients were in the same direction.

ID: 023
Variable: VIIIA asymmetry, IFG asymmetry
*Group: VIIIA_Large_RHem_IFG_Large_LHem, VIIIA_Large_LHem_IFG_Large_RHem
Group: ALN_NC, ALI_SLI
TestID: Chi^2
Chi^2: 6.7
DF: 1
N: 29
P: <0.01

ID: 024
Variable:
Group: ALN, NC, ALI, SLI
TestID: Chi^2Test
DF: 3
N: 42
Chi^2: 8.2
P: 0.04

IFG was asymmetrically leftward in ALN and NC groups, but rightward in ALI and SLI groups. Combining the data from both regions, we found a significant negative correlation between symmetry coefficients for cerebellar lobule VIIIA and IFG for each subject, rs (42) = −0.34, p = 0.02.

ID: 022
Variable: VIIIA asymmetry, IFG asymmetry
StatID:
DF: 42
R: -0.34
P: 0.02

Posterior cerebellar lobule VIIIA showed significant asymmetry differences: VIIIA was larger in right hemisphere for ALN and NC (language-normal) groups (7% and 4% rightward asymmetry respectively), but larger in left hemisphere for ALI and SLI (language-impaired) groups (11% and 6% leftward asymmetry respectively), F(3,38) = 2.9, p < 0.05, contrast t(38) = 2.7, p = 0.01 (Table 3 and Figure 3).

ID: 016
Variable: Right VIIIA Ratio
Group: ALN
Ratio%: 7

ID: 017
Variable: Right VIIIA Ratio
Group: NC
Ratio%: 4
ID: 018
Variable: Left VIIIA Ratio
Group: ALI
Ratio%: 11
ID: 019
Variable: Left VIIIA Ratio
Group: SLI
Ratio%: 6
ID: 020
Variable: Posterior cerebellar lobule VIIIA asymmetry
Groups: All
StatID: FTest
DF: 3, 38
F: 2.9
P: <0.05
ID: 021
Groups: ALI, SLI
StatID: TTest
ContrastDF: 38
ContrastT: 2.7
ContrastP: 0.01

The ratio of cerebellar white matter to cerebellar cortex was similar among groups (approximately 18% white matter and 82% cortex, F(3, 38) = 1.3, p = 0.3).

ID: 005
Groups: ALI, SLI
WMPercentage: 18
CortexPercentage: 82
TestID: 
Variables: WMPercentage, CortexPercentage
DF: 3, 38
T: 1.3
P: 0.3

Whole cerebellum and cerebellar cortex volumes did not differ among the four subject groups

ID: 001
Variable: whole cerebellum volume, cerebellar cortex volume, diagnosis
Interpretation: Whole cerebellum volume and cerebellar cortex volume did not vary across diagnostic groups NC, ALN, ALI, SLI

the “age by A/D” interaction was highly significant in the right vmPFC, including the right gyrus rectus (BA 11), medial OFC (BA 11,12), and a portion of the right SgACC (BA 25) (Fig. 1, P ≤ 0.05, RFT corrected)

ID: 001
Variable: age, ADscore, CT
Group: All
Interpretation: Significant age by A/D interaction in Right vmPFC

Given the slightly different scoring between CBCL 6/18 and CBCL 1½/5 that we have adjusted for, results were verified after excluding subjects assessed with the CBCL 1½/5. Results remained significant—but slightly reduced in spatial extent, confirming the initial finding. Of note, the distribution of the mean cortical thickness in the identified region of interest (mean of the significant area) had a normal distribution at each level A/D scores (confirmed by the Shapiro–Wilk test), which confirmed the validity of using a linear regression model despite some apparent positive skewness in the A/D scores distribution.

There were no associations between cortical thickness and the Somatic Symptoms score,

ID:012
Variable: CT, SomaticSympotomsScore
Interpretation: no association between CT and SomaticSymptomScore

Controlling for IQ and SES had no impact on the results.

ID: 011
Interpretation: IQ and SES had no impact on interactions

the “Handedness by Age by A/D” interaction was not significant, precluding any formal conclusion on the impact of handedness on the aforementioned developmental pattern.

ID: 010
Variable: ADscore, handedness, age, CT
Interpretation: No significant interaction of ADscore, age, and handedness on CT of Right vmPFC

When controlling for handedness, results remained significant in the right gyrus rectus and the right medial OFC, with a trend of association in the right SgACC (see Supplementary Fig. 2).

ID: 008
Variable: ADscore, handedness, CT
Interpretation: Significant interaction in the right gyrus rectus and the right medial OFC of the Right vmPFC

ID: 009
Variable: ADscore, handedness, CT
Interpretation: Association in the right SgACC of the Right vmPFC

There were no “A/D by gender” or three-way “A/D by age by gender” interactions on cortical thickness.

ID: 006
Variable: ADscore, gender
Interpretation: No significant interaction of ADscore and gender on CT

ID: 007
Variable: ADscore, gender, age
Interpretation: No significant interaction of ADscore, age, and gender on CT

subjects with higher scores had thinner right vmPFC (mean thickness of the significant area) at baseline, but evidenced thicker cortices later in teenage years due to a slower rate of cortical thinning.

ID: 004
Variable: ADscore, Right vmPFC CT
Interpretation: subjects with higher ADscore had thinner Right vmPFC CT at baseline

ID: 005
Variable: ADscore, Right vmPFC CT
Interpretation: subjects with higher ADscore had thicker Right vmPFC CT as teenagers

Specifically, between 5 and 8 years of age, right vmPFC thickness was negatively associated with A/D scores. The magnitude of this negative association began to diminish at approximately 9 years of age, until a neutral 0 t-score was revealed at ∼12 years of age. The direction of the association then reversed to become a positive trend at age 15, and a significant positive association at age 18.

ID: 002
Variable: ADscore, CT
Age?
Right vmPFC?
Interpretation: Right vmPFC CT negatively associated with ADscore between 5 and 8 yo

*ID: 003
How to annotate changing association with age?

right VIIA Crus I differed significantly between-groups, F(3, 38) = 2.9, p < 0.05, where SLI was 1.9 cc smaller than ALI, t(38) = 2.5, p = 0.02. This effect remained after covarying for cerebellar cortex volume, t(37) = 2.1, p = 0.04.

ID: 012
Groups: ALI, SLI
Variable: Right VIIA Crus I
StatID:
DF: 3, 38
F: 2.9
P: <0.05

ID: 013
Variable: Right VIIA Crus I Volume
Interpretation: SLI Right VIIA CRUS I Volume was 1.99 cc smaller than that of ALI.

There were no significant group differences in volumetric symmetry of whole cerebellum, cerebellar cortex, or cerebellar white matter.

ID: 011
Observation: There were no significant group differences in volumetric symmetry of whole cerebellum, cerebellar cortex, or cerebellar white matter.

SLI tended to have proportionally smaller cerebelli (including white matter and cortex), and ALI tended toward larger cerebelli, with NC and ALN falling between the language-impaired groups,

ID: 009
Interpretation: SLI had proportionally smaller cerebelli

ID: 010
Interpretation: ALI had proportionally larger cerebelli

Cortical analyses vertexwise across the surface were performed with general linear models to investigate relations of birth weight to regional cortical area and thickness, controlling for variation in age, sex, household income, and GAF as well as scanner used. When a commonly used approach to correct for multiple comparisons was used [false discovery rate (FDR) < 5%], minute effects of birth weight were observed on cortical thickness. However, significant positive relationships between birth weight and area were observed across large parts of the cortical surface (Fig. 1). On the medial surface of the brain, effects were seen bilaterally in the rostral anterior cingulate, retrosplenial, paracentral, precuneus, superior frontal and medial orbitofrontal cortices, parahippocampal, and fusiform gyri. On the lateral brain surface, bilateral effects extended from parsorbitalis to cover parts of lateral orbitofrontal cortices, and there were also effects in the rostral middle frontal, inferior parietal, and superior and middle temporal cortices as well as in the pre- and postcentral gyri. A few somewhat more scattered unilateral effects were also seen. Medially, effects extended into the caudal anterior cingulate in the left but not right hemisphere, whereas superior and orbitofrontal effects were more pronounced in the right than left hemisphere. Lateral effects were also more pronounced in the left orbitofrontal cortex, but otherwise, lateral effects also seemed slightly more extensive in the right hemisphere, covering somewhat larger temporal and parietal areas. Because the use of FDR for correction for multiple comparisons may influence the detection of specific effect sites, the full range of effects uncorrected at P < 0.05 is also shown in Fig. S1. Uncorrected, effects were somewhat more extensive, but the general pattern described was similar. A scatter plot of the relationship between birth weight and anterior cingulate area (partial β = 0.19, P < 0.0001) is shown in Fig. 2A. It appears from the plot that the low birth weight cases were not disproportionately influencing the relationship and that the relationship between cortical area and birth weight was also monotonous. The relationship between birth weight and anterior cingulate area remained virtually identical when excluding the low birth weight (1,500–2,499 g) cases (partial β = 0.18, P < 0.0001).

No significant effects were observed for the striatal volumes, with only a marginal effect observed for putamen (P = 0.062) when congruent reaction time was included as covariate.

ID: 020
Variable: Flanker performance, striatal vol
Interpretation: no relationship found

ID: 021
Variable: Flanker performance, putamen vol
Model: ? (includes congruent RT)
P: 0.062
Interpretation: slight cognitive control effect observed for putamen volume

There were no significant effects of birth weight on Flanker performance

ID: 019
Variable: incongruent condition Flanker performance, birth weight
Interpretation: no relationship found

Birth weight was positively related to total anterior cingulate area in this subsample (partial β = 0.14, P < 0.001, df = 20, 502).

ID: 018
Variable: birth weight, total anterior cingulate area
PartialBeta: 0.14
P: <0.001
DF: 20, 502

no relationship was observed in the congruent condition

ID: 017
Variable: incongruent condition Flanker performance, total anterior cingulate area
Interpretation: no relationship found

alid Flanker data were available for 522 participants, and we used reaction time in the incongruent condition, related to cognitive control, as the measure of interest. With GAF, MR site, sex, socioeconomic status, and age as covariates, better Flanker performance was significantly related to larger total anterior cingulate area [partial β = −0.092, P = 0.011, degrees of freedom (df) = 20, 502]. This effect was specific to cognitive control, because the relationship survived adding congruent reaction time as an additional covariate area (partial β = −0.064, P = 0.006, df = 21, 501);

ID: 015
Variable: Flanker performance, total anterior cingulate area
Model:
PartialBeta: -0.092
P: 0.011
DF: 20, 502

ID: 016
Variable: Flanker performance, total anterior cingulate area
Model: ? (includes congruent RT)
PartialBeta: -0.064
P: 0.006
DF: 21, 501

Although there did seem to be somewhat stronger effects of birth weight on pallidum and caudate volumes within the low birth weight group, none of the differences among effects in this group and the others reached significance (P > 0.10).

ID: 013
Variable: birth weight, pallidum vol
Group: low birth rate
Low Birth Weight: 1500-2499 g
P: >0.10
Interpretation: birth weight effects observed on pallidum volume

ID: 014
Variable: birth weight, caudate vol
Group: low birth rate
Low Birth Weight: 1500-2499 g
P: >0.10
Interpretation: birth weight effects observed on caudate volume

palladium,

For selected ROIs showing a significant relationship to birth weight, putamen, palladium, caudate, TBV, and rostral anterior cingulate cortex area, regression analyses were also repeated, including (i) a quadratic birth weight term to investigate possible differential effects in select ranges of birth weight and (ii) an interaction term of birth weight and age to investigate possible differential effects of birth weight at different ages. In no case did the quadratic term or the interaction term exert a significant effect (P > 0.10).

an effect of method of delivery on rostral anterior cingulate area, where larger area was observed with cesarean section (standardized β = 0.09, P = 0.018). This finding did not, however, attenuate the relationship with birth weight, for which the effect size remained virtually identical (standardized β = 0.185 vs. 0.193, both P values < 0.0001) when method of delivery was included or not included in the analysis, respectively.

ID: 010
Variable: rostral anterior cingulate area, birth method
Group: c section
ModelID: ?
StandardizedBeta: 0.09
P: 0.018

ID: 011
Variable: birth weight, birth method
Group: c section
ModelID: ?
StandardizesBeta: 0.193
P: <0.0001
ID: 012
Variable: birth weight, birth method
Group: vaginal birth
ModelID: ?
StandardizesBeta: 0.185
P: <0.0001
*Assumption made about which beta corresponds to which birth method

a unique relationship between birth weight and caudate volume remained (partial β = 0.11, P = 0.002)

ID: 009
Variable: birth weight, caudate vol
Model: ? (include TBV as regressor)
PartialBeta: 0.11
P: 0.002

These relationships also remained largely similar when excluding the low (1,500–2,499 g) birth weight cases (partial β for putamen: 0.09, P = 0.022; pallidum: 0.11, P = 0.004; caudate: 0.19, P < 0.001; TBV: 0.17, P < 0.001)

ID: 005
Variable: birth weight, putamen vol
Group: birth weight >2499g
PartialBeta: 0.09
P: 0.022
Interpretation: birth weight positively associated with putamen volume

ID: 006
Variable: birth weight, pallidum vol
Group: birth weight >2499g
PartialBeta: 0.11
P: 0.004
Interpretation: birth weight positively associated with pallidum volume
ID: 007
Variable: birth weight, caudate vol
Group: birth weight >2499g
PartialBeta: 0.19
P: <0.001
ID: 008
Variable: birth weight, TBV vol
Group: birth weight >2499g
PartialBeta: 0.17
P: <0.001
Interpretation: birth weight positively associated with TBV vol

Birth weight was uniquely and positively associated with each volume (partial β for putamen: 0.11, P = 0.006; pallidum: 0.12, P = 0.002; caudate: 0.20, P < 0.001; TBV: 0.16, P < 0.001)

ID: 001
Variable: birth weight, putamen vol
PartialBeta: 0.11
P: 0.006
Interpretation: birth weight positively associated with putamen volume

ID: 002
Variable: birth weight, pallidum vol
PartialBeta: 0.12
P: 0.002
Interpretation: birth weight positively associated with pallidum volume
ID: 003
Variable: birth weight, caudate vol
PartialBeta: 0.20
P: <0.001
ID: 004
Variable: birth weight, TBV vol
PartialBeta: 0.16
P: <0.001
Interpretation: birth weight positively associated with TBV vol

No associations were found between the lobes or individual PUs and the following clinical variables: antipsychotic dose in chlorpromazine equivalents, YMRS score, duration of illness, presence or absence of ADHD, and current mood state (manic, mixed, depressed, or euthymic)

ID: 015
Variable: lobe vol, antipsychotic dos in chlorpromazine equivalents, YMRS score, duration of illness, ADHD, current mood state
Interpretation: No associations were found between lobe volume and these clinical variables

ID: 016
Variable: PU vol, antipsychotic dos in chlorpromazine equivalents, YMRS score, duration of illness, ADHD, current mood state
Interpretation: No associations were found between PU volumes and these clinical variables

When we looked at the gyri in the BPD group, we found only that volumes of the left log POG were significantly and positively associated with scores on the GAF (B = 0.012; t = 2.22, p = 0.035).

ID: 014
Variable: left POG vol, GAF score
Group: BPD
B: 0.012
T: 2.22
P: 0.035
Interpretation: left POG vol positively associated with GAF score

The left log PL volumes in the BPD children decreased significantly in association with increasing numbers of psychoactive medications (B = −0.04; t = −2.138, p = 0.042) (when we examined the possible relationship between type of medication and change in PL volumes, we did not detect any significant or trend relationship between type of medication and PL volume).

ID: 012
Variable: left PL vol, quantity of medications
B: -0.04
T: -2.138
P: 0.042
Interpretation: left PL vol decreased with increased number of psychoactive medications

ID: 013
Variable: PL vol, type of medication
Interpretation: no relationship observed between PL vol and type of medication

Within the BPD group, those children with psychotic symptoms had smaller left log TL volumes (B = −0.092; t = −2.066, p = 0.048) than those without psychotic symptoms

ID: 011
Variable: left TL vol, diagnosis
Group: BPD_psych
B: -0.092
T: -2.066
P: 0.048

No significant group differences were found in the right or left FL

ID: 009
Variable: FL vol
Interpretation: no significant difference in FL vol observed

We did find significant group differences in the right MFG (B = −0.144; t = −2.289, p = 0.027

ID: 010
Variable: right MFG vol
Group: BPD
B: -0.144
T: -2.289
P: 0.027

the BPD group had significant reductions in the left volumes of the STG and FFG, but significant increases in bilateral PHG. These findings are summarized in Table 5.

The bipolar group had significantly smaller log left TL volumes compared with the control group (B = −0.050; t = −2.258, p = 0.029).

ID: 008
Variable: left TL vol
Group: BPD
B: -0.050
T: -2.258
P: 0.029

the BPD had significant reductions in the right and left POG (right: B = −0.116; t = −2.027, p = 0.049; left: B = −0.136; t = −2.592, p = 0.013).

ID: 006
Variable: right POG vol
Group: BPD
B: -0.116
T: -2.027
P: 0.049

ID: 007
Variable: left POG vol
Group: BPD
B: -0.136
T: -2.592
P: 0.013

Interestingly, both age and Verbal IQ for all children in this study (both BPD and HC combined) showed inverse relationships with PL volume, such that children with higher Verbal IQ scores were more likely to have smaller PL volumes, and older children were more likely to have smaller PL volumes.

ID: 004
Interpretation: Observed inverse relationship between age and PL volume

ID: 005
Interpretation: Observed inverse relationship between verbal IQ score and PL volume

The bipolar youth had significantly smaller log right and left PL volumes relative to the HC (right: B = −0.080, t = −2.154, p = 0.037; left: B = −0.102; t = −3.122, p = 0.003), after controlling for the significant effects of age, Verbal IQ, and log cerebral volume (see Table 4 for summary of regression models).

ID: 002
Variable: right PL vol
Group: BPD
B: -0.080
T: -2.154
P: 0.037
Interpretation: BPD youth had smaller right PL volumes than HC

ID: 003
Variable: left PL vol
Group: BPD
B: -0.102
T: -3.122
P: 0.003
Interpretation: BPD youth had smaller left PL volumes than HC

LDC and TDC did not explain any additional variance to FA.

When FA and ADC in forceps major were entered, FA was still significantly related to incongruent RT (β = −0.11, P < 0.01), whereas ADC ceased to be significant.

ID: 024
Variable: Incongruent RT
Covariate: FA of forceps major, ADC of forceps major
*how do we annotate that DTI parameters were included pairwise? does it matter that they were entered pairwise? we have a beta for each FA that varies by its DTI pairing

ID: 025
Variable: Incongruent RT
Covariate: FA
Beta: -0.11
P: <0.01
ID: 026
Variable: Incongruent RT
Covariate: ADC
P: insignificant

In this analysis, both cortical area (β = −0.10, P < 0.002) and FA (β = −0.13, P < 0.000005) contributed significantly to explain RT.

ID: 037
Variable: Incongruent RT
Covariate: SA of right caudal anterior cingulate, FA of forceps major
Model: Multiple regression analysis?
SA_Beta: -0.10
SA_P: <0.002
FA_Beta: -0.13
FA_P: <0.000005

In contrast to the cortical results, where a linear reduction in strength of the relationship with age was seen, the relationship between ADC/FA and cognition was strongest around 6–10 and above 16 y, with correlations not significant in the middle part of the age range (Fig. 3)

Analyses run separately for the youngest and oldest parts of the sample did not yield significant results for either ADC or FA. In contrast to the cortical results, where a linear reduction in strength of the relationship with age was seen, the relationship between ADC/FA and cognition was strongest around 6–10 and above 16 y, with correlations not significant in the middle part of the age range (Fig. 3). The coefficient strength at different ages was generally not very different and should be interpreted with caution.

The relationship between right anterior cingulate surface area and incongruent RT was plotted as a continuous function of age. The relationship was strongest for the youngest part of the sample, and it decreased linearly in strength with age

In forceps major, both ADC and TDC explained unique variance in incongruent RT (ADC β = 0.53, P < 0.005; TDC β = −0.43, P < 0.02), and the same was seen when ADC was entered with LDC (ADC β = 0.22, P < 0.00002; LDC β = −0.15, P < 0.005).

ID: 032
Variable: Incongruent RT
Covariates: ADC and TDC
*how to annotate?

ID: 033
Variable: Incongruent RT
Covariate: ADC
Beta: 0.53
P: <0.005
ID: 034
Variable: Incongruent RT
Covariate: TDC
Beta: -0.43
P: <0.02
ID: 035
Variable: Incongruent RT
Covariate: ADC, LDC
ID: 036
Variable: Incongruent RT
Covariate: ADC
Beta: 0.22
P: 0.00002
ID:037
Variable: Incongruent RT
Covariate: LDC
Beta: -0.15
P: <0.005

The same was true when FA was entered with TDC (β = −0.12, P < 0.005) and LDC (forceps major FA β = −0.14, P < 0.00005)

ID: 027
Variable:Incongruent RT
Covariate: FA of forceps major, TDC of forceps major

ID: 028
Variable: Incongruent RT
Covariate: FA
Beta: -0.12
P: <0.005
ID: 029
Variable: Incongruent RT
Covariate: TDC
P: insignificant
ID: 030
Variable: Incongruent RT
Covariate: FA of forceps major, LDC of forceps major
ID: 031
Variable: Incongruent RT
Convariate: FA
Beta: -0.14
P: <0.00005

a positive significant effect on anterior cingulate surface area for boys (partial β = 0.18, P < 0.10−6) was found.

ID: 021
Variable: Anterior cingulate SA
Covariate: Sex
Group: male
Model:
PartialBeta: 0.18
P: <0.10^-6

Significant positive RT relationships with forceps major were seen for both ADC (β = 0.18, P < 0.014, corrected for the number of comparisons) and FA (β = −0.20, P < 0.0014, corrected).

ID: 022
Variable: RT, ADC of forceps major
ModelID: ?
Beta: 0.18
P: <0.014
Interpretation: Positive RT relatonship

ID: 023
Variable: RT, FA of forceps major
ModelID: ?
Beta: -0.20
P: <0.0014
Interpretation: Positive RT relationship

There were no effects of sex on RT

ID: 020
Variable: RT
Covariate: Sex
ModelID: ?
P: insignificant

Additional analyses showed relationships of marginally less strength in the left hemisphere (artial β = −0.24 vs. −0.02 in the young and older groups, respectively, with congruent RT as a covariate)

ID: 016
Variable: left caudal anterior cingulate SA
Covariate: congruent RT
Group: Young
ModelID: ?
ArtialBeta: -0.24

ID: 017
Variable: left caudal anterior cingulate SA
Covariate: congruent RT
Group: Old
ModelID: ?
ArtialBeta: -0.02

Partial β was −0.23 (P < 0.05) for the younger sample compared with −0.02 [not significant (n.s.)] for the older sample. With RT from the congruent condition included as an additional covariate, the corresponding partial β values for incongruent RT were −0.32 (P < 0.05) for the younger group and −0.01 (n.s.) for the older participants.

ID: 011
Variable: SA
Group: Young
ModelID: ?
PartialBeta: -0.23
P: <0.05

ID: 012
Variable: SA
Group: Old
ModelID: ?
PartialBeta: -0.01
P: insignificant
ID: 013
Variable: SA
Group: Incongruent_Young
ModelID: ?
PartialBeta: -0.32
P: <0.05
ID: 013
Variable: SA
Covariates:
Group: Incongruent_Old
ModelID: ?
PartialBeta: -0.01
P: Insignificant

A cluster of negative effects covering the entire right anterior cingulate was found for the young group (cluster size = 2,077 mm2, clusterwise P = 0.019, corrected)

ID: 007
Variable: RT, Cluster size
Group: Young
Cluster size: 2077
Units: mm^2
P: 0.019
Interpretation: Cluster of negative effects found in right anterior cingulate of young group

Mean incongruence effect (cognitive conflict) on RT was 14.8% and negatively related to age (Pearson r = −0.33, P < 10−19)

ID: 006
Variable: Incongruence effect on RT
Covariate: Age
Mean: 14.8%
ModelID: Pearson
CorrelationCoefficient: -0.33
P: <10^-19

both were negatively related to age (Spearman ρ, congruent RT = −0.53, P < 10−53; incongruent RT = −0.61, P < 10−76)

ID: 004
Group: Congruent
CorrelationCoefficient: -0.53
P: <10^-53
ModelID: Spearman

ID: 005
Group: Incongruent
CorrelationCoefficient: -0.61
P: <10^-76
ModelID: Spearman

Mean reaction time (RT) in the congruent condition was 789 ms (SD = 217) vs. 906 ms (SD = 293) in the incongruent condition (t = 20.83, P < 10−75)

ID: 001
Variable: RT
Groups: Congruent, Incongruent
ModelID: TTEST
T: 20.83
P: <10^-75

ID: 002
Variable: RT
Group: Congruent
MeanValue: 789
SD: 217
Units: ms
ID: 003
Variable: RT
Group: Incongruent
MeanValue: 906
SD: 293
Units: ms

The same type of analysis was done for thickness of the right caudal anterior cingulate to test whether the observed effects were specific to area. Although thickness did not survive permutation testing, a significant relationship was found (partial β = 0.11, P < 0.05). When congruent RT was added as a covariate, this relationship ceased to be significant (partial β = 0.09, n.s.).

ID: 018
Variable: right caudal anterior cingulate thickness
ModelID: ?
PartialBeta: 0.11
P: <0.05

ID: 019
Variable: right caudal anterior cingulate thickness
Covariates: congruent RT
ModelID: ?
PartialBeta: 0.09
P: insignificant