Additionally, SARS-CoV-2 takes over autophagy pathway components in unconventional methods (Brüggemann et al., 2023; Zhao et al., 2021). SARS-CoV-2 E, M, ORF3a, and ORF7a cause autophagosome accumulation, but Nsp15 suppresses autophagosome formation (Hayn et al., 2021). Moreover, ORF3a of SARS-CoV-2 blocks autophagosomes by preventing the HOPS complex from assembling the SNARE complex, which is necessary for autolysosome formation (Miao et al., 2021). Another coronavirus, SARS-CoV, can induce incomplete autophagy by interacting between Nsp3 and Beclin1, which in turn modulates coronavirus replication and antiviral innate immunity (Chen et al., 2014).