The law was the result of international pressure, particularly from the Hague Convention, and was seen as a way to redeem the American government's international pledges.

law required records to be kept of all narcotics transactions, and copies of these records were to be kept by district internal revenue offices.

The AMA favored restrictive legislation, but also wanted to ensure that any bill had a maximum chance of passage. After several revisions, the Harrison Act was finally passed in December 1914.

Executive Committee to monitor the status of the legislation and make revisions.

he American Pharmaceutical Association called for a National Drug Trade Conference (NDTC) to bring together representatives from various trade associations to discuss the proposed legislation.

worked with Representative Francis Burton Harrison, a Democrat, to introduce a bill that would eliminate the use of narcotics except for medical purposes.

912, Hamilton Wright returned to the United States with the goal of increasing support for the International Opium Convention and ensuring the passage of domestic legislation to control narcotics.

The Hague Opium Convention was an international conference held in 1911-1912, where 12 nations gathered to discuss the regulation of opium and other drugs.

Dr. Wright believed that the Shanghai meeting gave the United States a moral obligation to appear with a clean slate before asking other nations to enact drastic legislation.

The resolutions included calls for the gradual suppression of opium smoking, the reexamination of national laws, and the control of morphine and other opium derivatives. The commission also recommended that nations not export opium to countries whose laws prohibit its importation. The meeting was significant because it marked the beginning of an American tradition in narcotic control, which emphasized the enactment of strict domestic legislation as an example to other nations.

he Shanghai Opium Commission was a meeting of 13 nations, including the United States, Great Britain, and the Netherlands, that convened on February 1, 1909, to discuss the opium problem.

Dr. Wright launched a national survey to collect information on the use of opium and its derivatives in the United States, and the State Department requested federal anti-narcotic legislation before the Shanghai meeting. This led to the passage of the first federal antinarcotic legislation in 1909, which banned the importation of smoking opium.

in the United States, there was growing concern about the opium trade and its impact on China.

The US government faced opposition from anti-opium groups,

The US acquired the Philippines in 1898, following the Spanish-American War, and with it, an opium problem.

and its management in state-buildin

worshiped Pan Hu, a legendary figure, as part of their New Year's celebrations.

he treatment is anecdotal

"Miao albums" that were compiled by officials responsible for governing frontier areas during the late Yongzheng or early Qianlong periods. These albums contained illustrations and texts describing the customs and practices of different ethnic minority groups in southwest China.

Qing Imperial Illustrations of Tributary Peoples was based on direct observation,

China saw a rise in ethnographic representation of different peoples, including the development of a systematic ethnography of ethnic minority groups.

including external characteristics, social activities, and mental constitution.

closely tied to colonization as part of European expansion.

Eckhout's works are examples of this term because they are products of the period in which the genre of the ethnographic portrait was created.

Albert Eckhout, which occupy a transitional space between the national type of the 16th and 17th centuries and the racial categories that developed in the 18th and 19th centuries.

7th century, the representation of skin color began to take on more importance, and engravings of Africans and Americans started to suggest differences in complexion.

The chapter also explores the development of anthropology and ethnography as academic disciplines, which began to take shape in the 19th century.

European explorers depended on local knowledge to find their way around.

The wonders of the East and West were seen as a source of entertainment and a way to fantasize about alternative worlds

lower-class social origins

“I anticipated some time ago that in [the] event of our securing Federal control of the sale and distribution of morphine and cocaine, the fiends would turn to Indian hemp, and for that reason incorporated that drug in the proposed act for the control of the interstate traffic in narcotics.”

Cannabis is rather an unimportant drug and that we have given undue attention to the whole subject of Cannabis

arbitrary cultural taboo

weed is commonly used among the old Mexican soldiers it is probable that El Paso became infected from that source.

cholars predict that marijuana smuggling from the US to Mexico will continue if Mexico's laws remain stricter than those in the US.

Traditional folk medical practices in Mexico may have also played a role in the demand for marijuana.

n the US, cannabis was initially seen as a potentially effective medicine, psychiatric tool, and stimulant for extraordinary visions and experiences.

The drug's reputation as a "killer weed" was likely influenced by Mexican ideas about marijuana, which associated it with violence, madness, and crime.

anti-marijuana laws followed this pattern, state by state, as a result of anti-Mexican sentiment.

stereotype of the marijuana user in Mexico was that of a dangerous, unpredictable madman,

"Mexican hypothesis" suggests that Mexican migrant workers brought marijuana to the US in the early 20th century, leading to its prohibition due to racial prejudice

In Mexico, the war on drugs was closely tied to US-Mexican relations, with the US exerting significant influence over Mexican drug policy. The Mexican government's efforts to prohibit drugs were often unsuccessful, and the country's drug trade continued to thrive

1940 Reglamento Federal de Toxicomanías in Mexico were key milestones in this process.

For example, in Mexico, the association between the Chinese and opium led to xenophobic attitudes towards drug use.

Mexico, with its own history of demonizing intoxicants and imposing laws to curb their distribution and abuse, was already in compliance with the Hague Convention's mandates and had created domestic laws that were harsher and more far-reaching than what was required by international law.

The United States, driven by domestic and foreign policy considerations, led the movement to codify international standards. The US experience in the Philippines and the lessons learned from the Chinese opium story led to the conclusion that only a system that restricted both supply and demand could be effective. The Hague Convention's Article 13 allowed the US to exert pressure on Latin American countries to adhere to international drug control standards, which ironically became a tool of imperialism.

Marijuana, on the other hand, was thoroughly demonized and eventually prohibited in 1920 as a drug that threatened to "degenerate the race."

dawn of independence in 1821, Mexico already had a long tradition of anti-drug rhetoric and regulatory mechanisms designed to curb "drug abuse." The situation continued to evolve, with the impermanence and flux of modernity inspiring both widespread concern about the harms of intoxicants and widespread use of them.

In Mexico, the creation of pariah drugs was a long-term process that involved various factors, including colonial conflicts, social prejudice, nationalism, economic interests, state-building, geopolitics, transnational intellectual currents, professional interests, and concerns about drug use and abuse.

This led to the emergence of a larger hemispheric network that linked Andean coca peasants to chemists, smugglers, and users in the United States and elsewhere. By the 1960s, agents of the U.S. Federal Bureau of Narcotics reported on recipes for coca paste, cocaine sulfates, and crude cocaine, which were refined in labs in Havana and later Colombia.

contentious nature of the region's epistemology, as well as the lack of corroboration from subsequent Dutch voyages.

image of an Ewaipanoma on his map of Guiana

corroborating

corroborating evidence for many elements of the cartographic vignettes.

armateurs' gift

analyzed in the context

as our beef butchers do over here

anthropology and other fields has revealed evidence that clearly corroborates certain accounts of indigenous anthropophagy among some tribes

generated authority for maps of distant regions.

co-constitution of masculinities and militaries is a key factor in their power.

hy military masculinities are the sites where boundary-making activity takes place, and Belkin suggests that it may be because nation-states and militaries are closely tied, and the military occupies an important symbolic position in nation-states.

male-male rape in military culture, which is both taboo and a means of socialization.

militarized masculinities may not just suppress the taboo or obscene but also incite and produce it.

militarized masculinities are about violence, but this violence is sanitized and legitimized, distinguishing it from other forms of violence.

Here they suggest that along with thwarted masculinity, and vulnerable and stigmatized positionalities, men in conflict settings do not uniformly benefit from patriarchal structures and the gender order

hat intersectionality should be used to challenge the hegemonic position of men (and some women) in national military contexts, and to acknowledge the structural inequalities in global peacekeeping economies.

alcohol was a normal part of social life

obacco, introduced in the 16th century, became a mass consumption c

US, where addiction was often linked to medical prescription, in Britain, opium use was more widespread and not necessarily connected to medical practice.

focus was on the quality of the drug and the lack of standardization, which led to accidental overdoses.

infant deaths were due to opium poisoning.

opium use was a normal part of everyday life in 19th-century England.

hypodermic syringe

often blamed the individual for their condition rather than acknowledging the role of external factors.

"addiction" eventually became widely accepted as the medical diagnosis of habitual narcotic use as a threatening and modern disease.

he Society for the Suppression of the Opium Trade was founded in 1874, focusing on the economic and moral aspects of the trade.

spread of opium smoking in England, particularly among the working class.

dens were seen as a threat to the English

opium use also reinforced the debt-labor system that bound them to exploitative merchants and criminal societies.

The anti-alcohol temperance movement,

medical concern about its consequences began to rise.

transatlantic adoption of the addiction concept by the First World War signaled the emergence of an Anglo-American conception of dangerous drugs

illicit consumption characterized by decadence and excess.

"anti-narcotic nationalism" in France.

n the late 1870s, attitudes towards psychotropic experimentation began to change with the introduction of new medical research on the dangers of addiction.

new drug legislation in 1916, criminalizing the consumption of drugs in public

deviant behaviors that would weaken and corrupt the French population and empire.

degeneration of France's population led to new medical research on the dangers of morphine addiction, alarming doctors and social reformers.

Cloaked with worries I was and I wept mutely into my sleeve

but I was so unused to travel that my progress was tardy. The third month had already begun now

China Sea as the edge of the world and is used to imagine the margins of the world as a realm of marvels and unknown dangers.

Benjamin's travelogue is a product of his imagination, influenced by biblical authority and rumors, rather than actual geographical knowledge.

Jewish utopia in the Arabian Peninsula, where 300,000 Jews live in 40 cities and 200 villages, free from the rule of gentiles.

personal experience and is likely an insertion made by him or a later editor.

universal Jewish community that despite its dispersion among various Muslim and Christian regimes still managed to preserve a strong sense of unity and cohesion

"a day's journey" to indicate close social interactions among Jewish communities,

rather a way to link places along a real but somewhat abstracted route.

travel times in the Sefer masa'ot may be unrealistic.

medieval understanding of travel writing.

mprecise unit of "a day's journey" and the parasang, an ancient Persian unit of measurement

partiality for southern French communities,

geography is experienced through human movement on specific routes.

Book of Travels as a literary work rather than a positivist account,

literary grid that allows the author to reflect on the medieval world from a Jewish perspective.

ourt's sexual economy and the role of wet nurses within it.

Confessions narrates the birth of Nijo's son as though it took place around the same time Empress Higashi-Nijõ bore a daughter

sexuality and religiosity

possibility of women's salvation outside dominant medieval Buddhist principles.

The regime's discourse was directed not only at domestic audiences but also at international ones, particularly in the West, where it sought to project its strength and legitimacy through civilizational language that focused on barbarizing the opposition.

discourse of racial militarism to justify its brutal crackdown on opposition groups, particularly those with Islamic affiliations.

ecular militarism also plays a role in othering and excluding those who seek a greater role for religion in political and public life.

reinforce a masculinist nationalism through militarism

Syria's militarist state has been shaped by its experience of colonization, and its militarism is directly connected to the country's anticolonialism

The ideal masculine identity was tied to militarism

Racial militarism played a significant role in shaping insider-outsider boundaries of national identity, with militarism performing an exclusionary function within the nation-state.

The construction of the "Other" was also racialized

militarism, which was used to facilitate the transition from one epoch of human development to the next.

militarism is not only shaped by colonialism but also perpetuates racial hierarchies and civilizational anxiety.

"militarization" is limited in its ability to fully capture the violence of liberal order, as it fails to acknowledge that there is no "good" liberal civilian past to which we can retreat.

It implies that universities were once purely civilian institutions that have been encroached upon by military values.

"militarization" framework elides: the historical context out of which the use of military equipment and tactics against Black activism develops.

militarization is a new process by which the exception (war) encroaches on the norm (peace).

The concept of militarization assumes a peaceful liberal order that is encroached on by military values or institutions, but this assumption is false.

The Periplus also describes the route from China to India, where silk was shipped by land via Bactria to Barygaza and then via the Ganges River to Limyrike. This passage provides evidence of connections between China and Rome during the first century of the Common Era. The trade links were significant, with many travelers focusing on trade, particularly silk, which formed an important part of the economies of several societies.

Zhang Qian's journey provided the Chinese with valuable information about the lands and peoples of Central Asia, and his report to Emperor Wudi helped to establish trade networks between China and Central Asia.

diplomatic mission to the Yuezhi nomads in modern-day Uzbekistan, led by an official named Zhang Qian. Zhang Qian's journey was a significant one, as it marked the beginning of Chinese travel to Central Asia.

Chinese princesses were sent to marry the Xiongnu leaders as part of the treaty agreement.

Peace and Friendship" accords, established a framework for relations between the Chinese and the Xiongnu that lasted for about 150 years.

he first emperor of the Han dynasty, Liu Bang, was a former official who had once been in charge of policing a section of the imperial highway system.

imperial courier network

The construction of a network of five great tree-lined 'fast roads' that converged on his capital at Xianyang linked the city to the eastern, southern, and northern regions of the empire.

The Chinese took an important lead in promoting travel, with formal state policy involved in promoting travel

whiteness operates as a dominant ideology,

requires collective action by people from a range of locations in the social order

ducators must acknowledge their own positioned subjects and engage in collective action to address racism and promote equity

The rejection of the provincial assemblies’ petition movement for a national parliament had already led many constitutionalists to accept the necessity of revolution, i

unity of the five races advocated by the constitutionalists helped keep the border regions of the Qing Empire together.

socially regressive, but recognizes the politically progressive contributions of the constitutionalist gentry in leading the transition to a republican form of government.

revolutionaries may have both appealed to and created anti-Manchu sentiment through their propaganda.

The revolution happened suddenly, unlike other revolutions that were long and protracted.

The Qing court's position weakened when they were defeated in Nanjing.Negotiations led to the abdication of the emperor and the establishment of a provisional republican government.

Yuan Shikai tried to balance the interests of the Manchus and the revolutionaries.

These demands included creating a parliament, having a constitution, electing a premier, and reviewing international treaties.

uan Shikai, a former leader of the Beiyang army.

e Second International, a federation of socialist parties and trade unions, supported the concept of parliamentary democracy and believed in the possibilities of social revolution.

Russian revolution and saw similarities between the tsars and the Qing emperors.

onstitutional monarchy as a way to achieve progress and economic development

anti-Manchu sentiment

Natural disasters,

The Qing government struggled financially, with increasing expenses for the army and a growing budget deficit.

The New Army,

The Qing government decided to nationalize the railway system under their control because it was profitable and would provide funds for the government.This decision angered many Chinese who believed each province should control its own railway development.

1900s, Chinese people wanted to regain control of their own transportation system from foreign investors.They formed groups to raise money and buy back the railroad rights.

Qing court, the ruling dynasty at the time, should have been aware that these assemblies would scrutinize their actions.

he country as a whole moved towards constitutional change, with plans for full constitutional government over the nine years.The death of the empress dowager Cixi increased the urgency for reform.

Various groups, including constitutional monarchists, nationalists, anarchists, Marxists, and the Revolutionary Alliance, criticized the Qing.

The Qing court and Chinese officials had attempted to adapt Western techniques and ideas to China's needs.

The fall of the Qing dynasty was triggered by an accidental bomb explosion in Hankou, which was fueled by agitation over constitutionalism, railways, and foreign encroachments

militarized masculinities are sites where boundary lines are drawn – “one between good guys and bad guys and the other separating what we can look at from what we can’t”

“peacekeeping” over “peacemaking” in Afghanistan (the poll defined peacemaking as distinct from traditional peacekeeping because it involves combat).

white masculinity and perpetuated narratives of saving "brown women" in need of salvation.

Female soldiers were depicted as tough but tender, exhibiting masculine qualities while helping others.

combat activities would make Canada more respected and taken seriously by other countries.

believed that projecting warrior masculinity would enhance Canada's reputation internationally.

"warrior creep," which refers to the spread of the warrior culture into non-combat roles and environments.

The peacekeeping model emphasizes traits like impartiality, sensitivity, compassion, and empathy, which are sometimes seen as feminized and can lead to frustration among peacekeepers who feel they cannot prove their masculinity.

warrior archetype, which is characterized by traits like physical strength, toughness, rationality, and aggression.

constructed, reproduced, and influenced by gendered relationships within military institutions.

archetype obscures the violence and imperialism of war.

role of gender in legitimizing violence in the Global War on Terror.

helpful hero masculinity as an ideal type should be politically troublesome for feminist scholarsThis archetype obscures all of the ways in which “legitimized” military violence is unhelpful,

hows that Gurkhas are actively shaping their own futures and challenging stereotypes through their actions.

natural attributes

source of pride and economic stability.

Gurkhas, who have a reputation as fierce warriors due to their martial race

gendered nature of the security industry and the participation of primarily men.

Feminist analyses see both the state and trafficking networks as threats to security, as trafficked persons lack freedom of movement and are at risk of abuse and poor health

Governments prioritize defense spending over healthcare,

Improving reproductive health and addressing gender inequalities are crucial for promoting human security.

health impacts of violent conflict, bioterrorism, pandemics, and endemic diseases disproportionately affecting certain regions are all linked to health and security

World Health Organization (WHO) and policymakers recognize the importance of health for international peace, stability, and human security.

onsidering gender in discussions of human security and argues for a balanced focus on both freedom from fear and freedom from want.

evidenced by the lack of involvement of women in drafting the new constitution and the passing of repressive legislation.

"responsibility to protect" (R2P).R2P suggests that states have a responsibility to intervene and protect civilians in other states if they are unable or unwilling to do so themselves.Some feminist scholars argue that the language of protection can reinforce gendered and racialized narratives.

issues of human security and human rights are sometimes used as justifications for military intervention.

The focus on individuals in human security discourse may overlook vulnerabilities and threats that are linked to larger associations such as gender, class, and ethnicity.

International Criminal Court

providers of human security, and that NGOs and international organizations

mphasizes empowering individuals to take action for their own security and well-being.

he United Nations Development Programme and the Commission on Human Security have played important roles in promoting and defining the concept of human security.

Human security includes freedom from fear and freedom from want, and encompasses various elements such as economic security, food security, health security, environmental security, personal security, community security, and political security.

wars, conflicts, famine, and poverty are all examples of insecurity that can harm individuals and communities.

exual exploitation is by far the most commonly identified form of human trafficking

"environmental security" and how it can be linked to traditional security ideas.Some view this connection as a positive way to address the threats posed by environmental degradation, while others see it as adding unnecessary complexity to the concept of security.

gender norms and identities can limit people's ability to achieve security.

considering gender in policymaking.

analyzing key issues in security studies through gender lenses.

Gender lenses help us understand how gender is connected to power dynamics and how it shapes international processes and practices.

rethought to reduce inequality and encourage security for people in their daily lives.

ects of war on women, we can gain a better understanding of the unequal gender relations that sustain military activities.