When sticks andstones and beasts form the sole environment of a people, their attitude islargely one of determined opposition to and conquest of natural forces

d even today continuing strong and insistent even thoughlargely silenced in outward expression by the public opinion of thenation.

In all things purely social we can be as separate as the five fin-gers, and yet one as the hand in all things essential to mutual progress

t startled the nation to hear a Negro advocating such a programmeafter many decades of bitter complaint

They cooperate with Mr. Washington asfar as they conscientiously can

when at the Chicago celebration of the Spanish-AmericanWar he alluded to the color-prejudice that is “eating away the vitals ofthe South,

esidents of Black and low-income communitiesare more likely to suffer from environmental degradation

oncepts of race andspace share very similar characteristics

engage-ment with racial studies by critical geographers has fosteredan understanding of the ways that “space works to conditionthe operation of power and the constitution of relationalidentities.

lack women at the center ofstruggles for spatial justice

Many families who havelived in East Tampa for several generations moved there dueto urban renewal, which demolished housing in other Blackneighborhood

predominantly Black, multi-neighborhoodEast Tampa area

this had occurred in Tampafrom the 1950s through the 1970

highway expansion initiativeshave disproportionately affected areas of the city that houselarge numbers of ethnic minority residents,

Young-Green was not only asserting her placeas a community leader but also as someone who could speakto the racialized history of highway expansion.

destroy cherished public and privatespaces without regard for the significance of these placesand spaces to people in the community.

White audience wereresidents of Tampa Heights

communitiesmay suffer from other effects because of past, current, andproposed urban projects

They had even or-ganized and participated in public protests against the projectcalled Tampa Bay Express

from other communities who would also be affectedby the expansion plans

FDOT

Key words:

intersection of race, space, and resistance as we revisit the legacies and contemporary implicationsof urban development policies in historically Black communitie

Key words

intersection of race, space, and resistance as we revisit the legacies and contemporary implications of urban development policies in historically Black communities.

pecifically identifiedpractices that could be utilized by mental health nurses inyouth and adult inpatient settings to promote trauma-informed care

counteracted

reinforces the link between childhood trauma and long-term negative health outcomes

positive relationship

study inthe USA established an irrefutable link between the child-hood exposure to harsh experiences, such as physical andsexual abuse, and neglect, and exposure to domestic vio-lence and adverse health outcomes in adulthood

Well-connected neural pathways, neces-sary for the development of healthy, adaptive responsesto experiences and emotions, are diminished in childrenexposed to adverse environments compared to thoseexposed to more positive environments. The resultingimpairment in mood and behaviour regulation leads tosubsequent maturational difficulties, such as an inabilityto establish effective interpersonal relationships, regulateemotions, and learn from own and others’ experiences(Schore 2003)

Others worry that their ambivalencewill end up confusing readers who require decisive, clear-cut conclusions.

Byadmitting that the opposing argument has a point, Ungar bolsters hiscredibility,

us get beyond the kind of “is too” / “is not” exchanges that oftencharacterize the disputes of young children and the more polarized shoutingmatches of talk radio and TV.

whenever you agree with one person’s view, youare likely disagreeing with someone else’s.

as long as you can support a positiontaken by someone else without merely restating what was said, there is noreason to worry about being “unoriginal.”

your textcan usefully contribute to the conversation simply by pointing out unnoticedimplications or explaining something that needs to be better understood.

ou also needto do more than simply echo views you agree with.

disagreements do not need to take the form of personal put-downs.

ot wanting to be unpleasant, to hurt someone’s feelings, or tomake yourself vulnerable to being disagreed with in return

disagree not with the position itself but with the assumption thatit is a new or stunning revelation.

you also have to offer persuasive reasons why you disagree.

Disagreeingcan also be the easiest way to generate an essay:

readers cometo any text needing to learn fairly quickly where the writer stands,

stating clearly whether you agree,disagree, or both,

he more complex and subtle yourargument is, and the more it departs from the conventional ways peoplethink,

hen writers take too long to declare their position relative to viewsthey’ve summarized or quoted, readers get frustrated,

agreeing,disagreeing, or some combination of both.

What these students come to realize is that goodarguments are based not on knowledge that only a special class of expertshas access to but on everyday habits of mind that can be isolated, identified,and used by almost anyone.

“I say” stage,

“Aquote by Shakespeare says.” Introductory phrases like these are bothredundant and misleading.

readers need to see how you interpret the quotation,

not all quotationsrequire the same amount of explanatory framing,

framing creates a kind of hybridmix of Tannen’s words and those of the writer.

studentexplains the quotation while restating it in his own words, thereby making itclear that the quotation is being used purposefully instead of having beenstuck in simply to pad the essay or the works-cited list

academic communicationtends to be a competition for supremacy in which loftier values liketruth and consensus get lost.

with the statement introducing it serving asthe top slice of bread and the explanation following it serving as the bottomslice.

Since this student fails to introduce the quotation adequately or explain whyhe finds it worth quoting, readers will have a hard time reconstructing whatTannen argued.

you need to build a framearound them in which you do that speaking for them.

When you're deeply engaged inthe writing and revising process, there is usually a great deal of back-and-forth between your argument and any quotations you select.

you need to have a sense ofwhat you want to do with them—that is, how they will support your text atthe particular point where you insert them.

what the quotation means,and how the quotation relates to your own text.

quotations are orphans: wordsthat have been taken from their original contexts and that need to beintegrated into their new textual surroundings.

Because the meaning of a quotation isobvious to them, many writers assume that this meaning will also be obvious

because theydon’t fully understand what they’ve quoted and therefore have troubleexplaining what the quotations mean.

Quoting someone else’s words gives atremendous amount of credibility to your summary and helps ensure that itis fair and accurate.

Because our speaker failed to mention what others had saidabout Dr. X’s work, he left his audience unsure about why he felt the need tosay what he was saying.

the argument—that Dr. X’s work was very important—was clearenough, but why did the speaker need to make it in the first place? Didanyone dispute it?

To introduce a summary, use one of the signal verbs

Though “he says” or “she believes” willsometimes be the most appropriate language for the occasion,

urge,” “emphasize,” and “complain about”

that writing is aboutplaying it safe and not making waves,

In some cases,“the says” may even drain the passion out of the ideas you’re summarizing.

avoid bland formulas like “she says” or“they believe.”

But in taking their position to itslogical conclusion,

the satiric summary,

eflecting not justthe source you are summarizing but your own perspective or take on it aswell.

riting a good summary means not just representing anauthor’s view accurately but doing so in a way that fits what you want to say,the larger point you want to make.

it has a clear,overarching goal:

Not all lists are bad, however. A list can be an excellent way to organizematerial

ist summaries,

But writers often summarize a given author on oneissue even though their text actually focuses on another.

th toward Zinczenko’s own text and toward the secondparagraph, where the writer begins to establish her own argument.

If you want your essay to encompass all threetopics, you'll need to subordinate these three issues to one of Zinczenko’sgeneral claims and then make sure this general claim directly sets up yourown argument.

you to temporarily adopt theworldview of another person, it does not mean ignoring your own viewaltogether.

KNOW WHERE YOU AREGOING

t is extremely important that you go back to what those others have said,

the closest cliché syndrome,

ou are likely to produce summaries that are so obviously biased thatthey undermine your credibility with readers.

readers should not be able to tell whetheryou agree or disagree with the ideas you are summarizing.

To write a really good summary, you must be able to suspend your ownbeliefs for a time and put yourself in the shoes of someone else.

a summarymust at once be true

Lackingconfidence, perhaps, in their own ideas, these writers so overload their textswith summaries of others’ ideas that their own voice gets lost.

it is important to knowhow to summarize effectively what those other people say.

By reminding readers of the ideas you’re responding to, return sentencesensure that your text maintains a sense of mission and urgency from start tofinish.

In other words, even when presenting your own claims, you should keepreturning to the motivating “they say.”

nother way to open with a debate involves starting with a propositionmany people agree with in order to highlight the point(s) on which theyultimately disagree:

Furthermore, opening with a summary of a debate can help you explore theissue you are writing about before declaring your own view.

TEMPLATES FOR MAKING WHAT “THEY SAY”SOMETHING YOU SAY

TEMPLATES FOR INTRODUCING WHAT “THEYSAY”

Instead ofOpening with someone else’s views, you could start with an illustrativequotation, a revealing fact or statistic, or—as we do in this chapter—a

Modern English . . . is full of badhabits

Although we agree that you shouldn’t keep readers in suspense too longabout your central argument, we also believe that you need to present thatargument as part of some larger conversation,

The point is to give your readers a quick preview ofwhat is motivating your argument, not to drown them in details right away.

What we suggest, then, is that as soon as possible youstate your own position and the one it’s responding to together, and that youthink of the two as a unit.

remember that you areentering a conversation and therefore need to start with “what others aresaying,” as the title of this chapter recommends, and then introduce yourown ideas as a response.

to keep an audience engaged, writers need to explain whatthey are responding to—either before offering that response or, at least, veryearly in the discussion.

only what their thesis is but also what larger conversation that thesis isresponding to.

At least two Senior High Schools and atleast one Junior High School must be built. MarengoStreet School must be reactivated to reduce thestudent-teacher load at Murchison Street School.

Textbooks and curriculum will be developed to showMexican and Mexican-American

Community parents will be engaged as teacher'saides. Orientation

Any teacher having a particularlyhigh percentage of the total school dropouts in hisclasses shall be rated by the Citizens

Mexican-Americanstudents. This program will be open to all otherstudents on a voluntary basis.

o student or teacher will be reprimanded orsuspended for participating in any efforts which areexecuted for the purpose of improving or furtheringthe educational quality in our schools.

"disturbing the peace," thefocus shifted dramatically to legal defenseof those being prosecuted rather thanfighting for equal education.

nfortunately these demands fell to thewayside along with the public's attention

articulated their needs andinjustices through the EICC in a list of 39demands presented to the Los AngelesBoard of Education.

formedthe core of the Educational IssuesCoordinating Committee (EICC), whichserved as a voicebox for the fight forequal student rights in the aftermath ofthe walkouts

Mexican Americanstudents continued to trail behind in theclassro

Prejudice from teachers andadministrators, both liberally-minded andoutright bigoted, instigated stereotypes ofMexican Americans that discouraged thestudents from higher learning.

60%high school dropout rate. If they didgraduate, they averaged an 8th-gradereading level.

New high schools in the area must be immediatelybuilt.

chool facilities should be made available forcommunity activities under the supervision of Parents'Councils (not PTA). Recreation programs for childrenwill be developed.

tudent menus should be Mexican oriented. WhenMexican food is served, mother from the barriosshould come to the school and help supervise thepreparation of the food.

to show the injustices that Mexicanshave suffered as a culture of that society.

No student or teacher will be reprimanded orsuspended for participating in any efforts which areexecuted for the purpose of improving or furtheringthe educational quality in our schools.

see how theyfit in with contemporary educationalneeds:

If the walkouts weren't entirely successful,they certainly empowered and unified theEast LA. community under a just cause,while awakening the politicalconsciousness of Chicano youth.

agree with 99% ofstudent demands, yet not follow throughciting lack of funding.

improvements to school buildings,facilities and the Industrial Arts Program --designed seemingly to funnel MexicanAmericans to low-paying jobs, whichrequired less critical thinking andcommunication skills.

academic changes to theLAUSD curricula and source material inorder to reflect Mexican American historyand culture.

Educational IssuesCoordinating Committee (EICC),

Meanwhile, adeveloping iconography of cultural prideand beauty was empowering Chicanoswith art and murals throughout East LosAngeles communities.

Mexican Americanstudents continued to trail behind in theclassroom.

Prejudice from teachers andadministrators, both liberally-minded andoutright bigoted, instigated stereotypes ofMexican Americans that discouraged thestudents from higher learning.

1967 Mexican American studentsthroughout the Southwest held a 60%high school dropout rate.

hat museum has been the healing ground for me,” Carrington says. She’s learned forthe first time how white families were impacted, befriended a former academy teacher,and done a lot of praying to help get over her anxieties and anger. “I have come so far,”she says. “I’ve surprised myself.

nd the common attitude was “never talk about it again,” Ward says. Many who wereinvolved in the strike and subsequent activism never told their children about it. Foryears, there was a pervasive lack of trust between black and white residents, as well astension between white families who sent their children to the academy and those whosent their kids to public schools

two Negroes on the six-memberschool board.

But she found herself hating school, shesays, probably because she was out of practice being a student

early all the students were black, and the private academycontinued to operate.

the schools opened in the fall of 1963 in leased public school buildings,with abundant supplies and teachers from across the country.

Some were arrested for demonstrating without a permit, somefor singing on the steps of the white Farmville Baptist Church. But several businessesbegan hiring black workers

When the Foundationtried to buy the empty public school buildings for the private school, all but one of theschool board members resigned and released a statement in favor of public education.

$250 tuition and bus fee foreach student, there was no way her parents could afford it

The General Assembly also passed a bill that allowed countyresidents to deduct up to 25 percent of their property taxes if they contributed to aprivate school.

“Going to school in churchbasements wasn’t fun,”

We didn’t have schoolbooks to read. Mymother was not very educated but she was very intelligent. She taught us the best shecould.

The Virginia Teachers Association also sponsorededucational programs, and volunteers from as far away as New England came to tutorand work with the students

The school closings didn’t just affect children’s education—they changed families.

he Negro plaintiffs had, after all, won the case.”

he schools that had closed started integrating. And, in May, the FourthCircuit overturned the district judge’s ruling and ordered Prince Edward to integrate itsschools by that fall

hich gave the governor the power to close any school that integrated andstipulated that school districts that integrated would lose state funding.

close the public schools should they be ordered to desegregate.

We submit thatVirginia has not abandoned public education; the Supreme Court has abolished it

is the most seriousblow that has yet been struck against the rights of the states in a matter vitally affectingtheir authority and welfare. .. . In Virginia now we are facing a crisis of the firstmagnitude.”

However, supplies such as books and scienceequipment were still scarce.

The NAACP expected this ruling and continued preparation for an appeal tothe Supreme Court.

A few acts of intimidation went beyond the “civilized” code. On Sunday, May 6, someoneburned a cross in the Moton schoolyard. The Ku Klux Klan was not active in the area,however, and most people—black and white—agreed it was the action of a few. Griffinreceived death threats, and a crude homemade bomb fizzled on the steps of his house.The Johns family began to fear for Barbara’s safety after receiving several threats againsther. They sent her to live with her uncle Vernon in Montgomery, Alabama, and finish highschool there.

therblack families began to have problems with their credit too.

So white leaders asserted their power through “official” channels. The school board firedMoton’s principal and a teacher who was aunt to a student and whose husband was anNAACP member. They also fired Moton teacher Vera Allen, whose daughter Edwilda wasinvolved in the strike. Eventually, the county abolished John Lancaster’s job as Negrocounty farm agent, ostensibly because of his support of the strike and his efforts as theMoton PTA president to build a new school.

Anybody who won’t fight against racial prejudice is not a man.”

NAACP

To strike until they got what they wanted. Moststudents were on board immediately. That afternoon they stayed on the school grounds,carrying placards with demands such as “We are tired of tar paper shacks—we want anew school.”

Classes also met in several tar-paper shacks,which county officials had constructed instead of a new school.

School supplies were secondhand and spread thin, and more than 450students were packed into a facility originally built for 180.

Since it opened in 2001, it has hosted events and discussions about the civil rights era.

Prince Edward County refused to integrate andlocked its doors.

constructed in 1939 to house an all-black highschool, reminds them of an era they’d rather forget.

Near thecenter of town stands a bronze Confederate soldier, a monument to Civil War veterans.Up the hill on the edge of town, past historic storefronts and churches, past LongwoodCollege, sits the Robert Russa Moton Museum, Virginia’s only National Historic Landmarkof the civil rights movement.

A mixed school withpoor and unsympathetic teachers,with hostile public opinion, and noteaching of truth concerning blackfolk, is bad

I came toAtlanta University to teach history in1897, without the slightest idea frommy Harvard tuition, that Negroesever had any history!

but there isno doubt but what the tremendouspsychic history of the American andWest Indian groups has made it possi-ble for the present generation to ac-cumulate a wealth of material which,with encouragement and training,could find expression in the drama, incolor and form, and in music. Andno where could this training betterbe pursued than in separate Negroschools under competent and intelli-gent teachers?

congenital

Beyond this, Negro colleges oughtto be studying anthropology, psychol-ogy, and the social sciences, from thepoint of view of the colored races.

They ought to studyintelligently and from their own pointof view, the slave trade, slavery,emancipation, Reconstruction, andpresent economic development.

Negroesmust know the history of the Negrorace in America, and this they willseldom get in white institutions

merican Negroes have, be-cause of their history, group experi-ences and memories, a distinct entity,whose spirit and reactions demand acertain type of education for its de-velopment

I have be-come curiously convinced that untilAmerican Negroes believe in their ownpower and ability, they are going tobe helpless before the white world

Conceive a Negro teachingin a Southern school the econhicswhich he learned at the Harvard Busi-ness School! Conceive a Negro teacherof history retailing to his black stu-dents the sort of history that is taughtat the University of Chicago!

Howard, Fisk, and Atlanta arenaturally unable to do the type andgrade of graduate work which is doneat Columbia, Chicago, and Harvard

There can be nodoubt that if the Supreme Court wereoverwhelmed with cases where theblatant and impudent discriminationagainst Negro education is openlyacknowledged, it would be compelledto hand down decisions which wouldmake this discrimination impossibl&

Today, when the rJegro publicschool system gets from half to one-tenth of the amount of money spenton white schools, and is often conse-quently poorly run and poorly taught

bygiving Negro teachers decent wages,decent schoolhouses and equipment,and reasonable chances for advance-ment

just so longthe main problem of Negro educationwill not be segregation but self-knowl-edge and self-respect

If the American Negro reallybelieved in himself; if he believed thatNegro teachers can educate childrenaccording to the best standards ofmodern training; if he believed thatNegro colleges transmit and add toscience, as well as or better than othercolleges, then he would bend his ener-gies, not to escaping inescapable as-sociation with his own group, but toseeing that his group had every op-portunity for its best and highest de-velopment

We shall get a finer, better bal-ance of spirit; an infinitely more ca-pable and rounded personality by put-ting children in schools where theyare wanted, and where they are happyand inspired, than in thrusting therhinto hells where they are ridiculed andhated.

I nother cases, the result of the experi-ment may be complete ruin of char-acter, gift, and ability and ingrainedhatred of schools and men

t is difficult to think of any-thing more important for the develop-ment of a people than proper trainingfor their children

but as long asAmerican Negroes believe that theirrace is constitutionally and perma-nently inferior to white people, theynecessarily disbelieve in every possi-ble Negro Institution

The otherreason is at bottom an utter lack offaith on the part of Negroes that theirrace can do anything really well

they refuse to work for their adequatesupport; and they refuse to join pub-lic movements to increase their effi-ciency

To endure bad schools and wrongeducation because the schools are"mixed" is a costly if not fatal mis-take.

In that case, a firmand intelligent appeal to public opin-ion would eventually settle the mat-ter. But the futile attempt to compeleven by law a group to do what it isdetermined not to do, is a silly wasteof money, time, and temper

We have got to accept Negroschools. Any agitation and actionaimed at compelling a rich and power-ful majority of the citizens to do whatthey will not do, is useless. On theother hand, we have a right and aduty to assure ourselves of the truthconcerning this attitude; by carefulconferences, by public meetings andby petitions, we should convince our-selves whether this demand for sepa-rate schools is merely the agitation ofa prejudiced minority, or the con-sidered and final judgment of thetown

Under such circumstances, there isno room for argument as to whetherthe Negro needs separate school$ ornot. The plain fact faces us, thateither he will have separate schoolsor he will not be educated.

And in the same way, there aremany public school systems in theNorth where Negroes are admittedand tolerated, but they are not edu-cated; they are crucified

I am no fool; and Iknow that race prejudice in the Uni-ted States today is such that mostNegroes cannot receive proper edu

just solong we shall lack in America thatsort of public education which willcreate the intelligent basis of a realdemocracy

to try to deceive ourselves into think-ing that race prejudice in the UnitedStates across the Color Line is gradu-ally softening and that slowly butsurely we are coming to the timewhen racial animosities and classlines will be so obliterated that sepa-rate schools will be anachronisms