Some women also took to the streets as part of more unruly mob actions, participating in grain riots, raids on the offices of royal officials, and demonstrations against the impressment of men into naval service. The agitation of so many helped elicit responses from both Britain and the colonial elites.

The colonial economy improved as the postwar recession receded

Declaratory Act, was left, in part, to save face and assert that Parliament still retained the right to tax the colonies.

The soldiers were tried in Boston and won acquittal, thanks, in part, to their defense attorney, John Adams.

Non-importation, and especially, non-consumption agreements changed colonists’ cultural relationship with the mother country. Committees of Inspection that monitored merchants and residents to make sure that no one broke the agreements.

Women, too, became involved to an unprecedented degree in resistance to the Townshend Acts.

By November 16, all of the original twelve stamp collectors had resigned, and by 1766, groups who called themselves the “Sons of Liberty” were formed in most of the colonies to direct and organize further popular resistance.

Violent riots broke out in Boston, during which crowds burned the appointed stamp distributor for Massachusetts, Andrew Oliver, in effigy and pulled a building he owned “down to the Ground in five minutes.”15

The Sugar Act of 1764 was an attempt to get merchants to pay an already-existing duty, but the Stamp Act created a new

“The colonists are entitled to as ample rights, liberties, and privileges as the subjects of the mother country are, and in some respects to more.”3

hey sought to eliminate Britain’s growing national debt by raising taxes and cutting spending on the colonies.

The most famous of the anti-Stamp Act resolutions were the “Virginia Resolves,” passed by the House of Burgesses on May 30, 1765,

The Seven Years’ War culminated nearly a half-century of war between Europe’s imperial powers

Eliot was a chemist, so perhaps we should take his criticisms with a grain of salt.

2014 study showed that test scores in science and math courses improved after professors replaced lecture time with “active learning” methods like group work

Behaviour of the traders towards our Women

worthy cannot bear to be disgraced without a fault

With respect to the Land I was not Consulted in it, if I was to deliver my Sentiments evil disposed People might impute it to Motives very different from those which actuate me,

the English went they caused disturbances for they lived under no Government and paid no respect either to Wisdom or Station.

colonies are governed

change

defending their Liberties, as they call them.

commander of the British North American forces, arrived in New York City on July 22, 1756

would continue to employ this strategy to consolidate their power in North America

settled for peace.

influential in its development.

exposed divisions within the newly expanded empire, including language, national affiliation, and religious views.

invasion, a massive coalition of France, Austria, Russia, and Sweden attacked Prussia and the few German states allied with Prussia

The French defeated Britain’s German allies and forced them to surrender after the Battle of Hastenbeck in 1757.

French seemed to easily defeat British attacks,

Seven Years War was tremendously expensive and precipitated imperial reforms on taxation, commerce, and politics

Defiant slaves could legally be beaten, branded, mutilated, even castrated.

By 1750, slavery was legal in every North American English colony, b

"This is rather too coarse a compliment, but you are so saucy, I won't blot it out

I desire you would remember the ladies and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors.

egislative or supreme authority cannot assume to itself a power to rule by extemporary arbitrary decrees

men when they enter into society give up the equality, liberty, and executive power they had in the state of Nature into the hands of the society,

Thirdly, in the state of Nature there often wants power to back and support the sentence when right, and to give it due execution.

it made me tremble to see the Sight

– It pleased God to bring on my Convictions more and more, and I was loaded with guilt of Sin, I saw I was undone for ever; I carried Such a weight of Sin in my breast or mind, that it seemed to me as I should sink into the ground every step; and I kept all to my self as much as I could;

Poor me

I was possesst with a notion that if I had it I would die and goe right to hell,

he seeks out and is willing to join in society with others who are already united

But government, into whosesoever hands it is put, being as I have before shown, entrusted with this condition, and for this end, that men might have and secure their properties, the prince or senate, however it may have power to make laws for the regulating of property between the subjects one amongst another,

power to punish the crimes committed against that law

every man his equal

equal to the greatest and subject to nobody

Whitefield was a former actor with a dramatic style of preaching and a simple message.

only elite members of society eligible to serve in elected positions

. One of the major differences between modern politics and colonial political culture was the lack of distinct, stable, political parties. The most common disagreemen

peace and prosperity

The Seven Years’ War pushed the thirteen American colonies closer together politically and culturally than ever before.

preparation for war

urged greater Atlantic trade

This gave the British a larger empire than they could control, which contributed to tensions leading to revolution.

The Seven Years’ War ended with the peace treaties of Paris in 1762 and Hubertusburg in 1763. The British received much of Canada and North America from the French, while the Prussians retained the important province of Silesia.

Raiding parties would destroy houses and burn crops, but they would also take captives

wives asserted more control over their own bodies.

more people to marry earlier in life

women’s role in the family became more complicated

a group of about 80 slaves set out for Spanish Florida under a banner that read “Liberty!,” burning plantations and killing at least 20 white settlers as they marched.

idea that government was put in place by the people

many of these assemblies saw it as their duty to check the power of the governor and ensure that he did not take too much power within colonial government.

charter colonies had the most complex system of government, formed by political corporations or interest groups who drew up a charter that clearly delineated powers between executive, legislative, and judiciary branches of government.

These crown governors could veto any decision made by the legislative assemblies in the provincial colonies.

cared for the poor in their communities

colonial government also had more power in a variety of areas.

sizeable free black community that made up about 10% of the city’s population

South Carolina also banned the freeing of slaves unless the freed slave left the colony.

Virginia planters used the law to maximize the profitability of their slaves and closely regulate every aspect of their daily lives.

By 1750, slavery was legal in every North American English colony,

The most common disagreement in colonial politics was between the elected assemblies and the royal governor. Generally, the various colonial legislatures were divided int

In 1754 a force of British colonists and Native American allies, led by young George Washington, attacked and killed a French diplomat. This incident led to a war,

Virginia, the oldest of the English mainland colonies, imported its first slaves in 1619

chains and fettered two together.

Africans still resisted:

violently affected by the seasickness than the Europeans

and cut one of his legs so round the bone, that he could not move, the nerves being cut through; others cut our cooks throat to the pipe, and others wounded three of the sailors, and threw one of them overboard in that condition, from the forecastle into the sea.

I have seen some of these poor African prisoners most severely cut for attempting to do so, and hourly whipped for not eating.

us arm'd, they fell in crouds and parcels on our men, upon the deck unawares, and stabbed one of the stoutest of us all, who receiv'd fourteen or fifteen wounds of their knives, and so expir'd. Next they assaulted our boatswain, and cut one of his legs so round the bone, that he could not move, the nerves being cut through; others cut our cooks throat to the pipe, and others wounded three of the sailors, and threw one of them overboard in that condition, from the forecastle into the sea.

in, and cut one of his legs so round the bone, that he could not move, the nerves being cut through; others cut our cooks throat to the pipe, and others wounded three of the sailors, and threw one of them overboard in that condition, from the forecastle into the sea.

transatlantic slave trade provided such a workforce.

New laws gave legal sanction to the enslavement of people of African descent for life.

desperation that drove some slaves to suicide

Wars offered the most common means for colonists to acquire Native American slaves

Events across the ocean continued to influence the lives of American colonists. Civil war, religious conflict, and nation building transformed seventeenth-century Britain and remade societies on both sides of the ocean

Native Americans saw fledgling settlements turned into unstoppable beachheads of vast new populations that increasingly monopolized resources and remade the land into something else entirely. 

Slave marriages were not recognized in colonial law. Some enslaved men and women married “abroad”; that is, they married individuals who were not owned by the same master and did not live on the same plantation. These husbands and wives had to travel miles at a time, typically only once a week on Sundays, to visit their spouses. Legal or religious authority did not protect these marriages, and masters could refuse to let their slaves visit a spouse, or even sell a slave to a new master hundreds of miles away from their spouse and children.

Thomas Phillips

Puritans

Bacon’s Rebellion

Slavery was particularly troublesome for some pacifist Quakers of Pennsylvania on the grounds that it required violence

Persistently independent and with republican sympathies, the settlers refused a governor and instead elected a president and council

housands of other Indians fled the region or were sold into slavery

Native American slaves died quickly, mostly from disease, but others were murdered or died from starvation. The demands of growing plantation economies required a more reliable labor force

educated a substantial number of slaves

English traders fomented Indian war in order to purchase and enslave captives, and planters justified the use of an enslaved workforce by claiming white servants were “good for nothing at all.

“I can’t think there is any intrinsic value in one color more than another, nor that white is better than black, only we think it so because we are so.”

In the Oliners’ study of Germans who helped rescue Jews during the Nazi Holocaust, one of the strongest predictors of this inspiring behavior was the individual’s memory of growing up in a family that prioritized compassion and altruism.

you are banished from out of our jurisdiction

covenant of grace

covenant of works

a thing not tolerable nor comely in the sight of God

three years ago we were all in peace.

f white and black acting together to challenge authority

barbarous enemy

For having protected, favored, and emboldened the Indians

divide and separate us who have suffered by their oppressions.

That in whatsoever place, house, or ship, any of the said persons shall reside, be hid, or protected, we declare the owners, masters, or inhabitants of the said places to be confederates and traitors

cries of blood

Bacon and his supporters rose up and plundered the elite’s estates and slaughtered nearby Indians.

And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament: and it was so.

And God said, Let there be light: 2 Cor. 4.6 and there was light

In contrast, England appointed Virginia's governor, while in Maryland, the governor was appointed by the Calvert family, which owned the colony.

Puritan had made a covenant with God to establish a truly Christian community

When God gives us a special commission He wants it strictly observed in every article....

etween God and man, ministers and congregations, magistrates and members of their community, and men and their families--were envisioned in terms of a covenant or contract which rested on consent and mutual responsibilities.

God Almighty in His most holy and wise providence hath so disposed of the Condition of mankind, as in all times some must be rich, some poor, some high and eminent in power and dignity; others mean and in subjection.

God of Israel

the Puritan had made a covenant with God to establish a truly Christian community,

Puritan

came unarmed into our houses, without bows or arrows, or other weapons, with deer, turkeys, fish, furs, and other provisions to sell and truck with us for glass, beads, and other trifle

not sparing either age or sex, man, women or child; so sudden in their cruel execution that few or none discerned the weapon or blow that brought them to destruction....

the colonists discovered that Virginia was an ideal place to cultivate tobacco,

Our hands, which before were tied with gentleness and fair usage, are now set at liberty by the treacherous violence of the savages.

And not being content with taking away life alone, they fell after again upon the dead, making, as well as they could, a fresh murder, defacing, dragging, and mangling the dead carcasses into many pieces, and carrying away some parts in derision

Yea, such was the treacherous dissimulation of that people who then had contrived our destruction

Powhatan

This comprehensive collection of historic texts

The New England climate and soil made large-scale plantation agriculture impractical, so the system of large landholders using masses of slaves or indentured servants to grow labor-intensive crops never took hold.

He launched a surprise attack and in a single day (March 22, 1622) killed 347 colonists, or one-fourth of all the colonists in Virginia.

The reliance on new imports of slaves increased the likelihood of resistance, however, and escaped slaves managed to create several free settlements, called quilombos.

Spanish missionaries brought Indians into enclosed missions, whereas Jesuits more often lived with or alongside Indian groups.

When Oñate sacked the Pueblo city of Acoma, the “sky city,” the Spaniards slaughtered nearly half of its roughly 1,500 inhabitants, including women and children. Oñate ordered one foot cut off of every surviving male over 15 and he enslaved the remaining women and children.1

Many cited spiritual concerns and argued that colonization would glorify God, England, and Protestantism by Christianizing the New World’s pagan peoples.

Dutch women maintained separate legal identities from their husbands and could therefore hold property and inherit full estates

The French preference for trade over permanent settlement fostered more cooperative and mutually beneficial relationships with Native Americans than was typical among the Spanish and English

Powhatan

He navigated Indian diplomacy, claiming that he was captured and sentenced to death but Powhatan’s daughter, Pocahontas, intervened to save his life

The Crown granted missionaries the right to live among Timucua and Guale villagers in the late 1500s and early 1600s and encouraged settlement through the encomienda system (grants of Indian labor).

European explorers, meanwhile, had hoped to find great wealth in Florida, but reality never aligned with their imaginations.

Conquest

Slaves and Indians occupied the lowest rungs of the social ladder

Much of the city was built on large artificial islands called chinampas which the Aztecs constructed by dredging mud and rich sediment from the bottom of the lake and depositing it over time to form new landscapes

. In central America the Maya built massive temples, sustained large populations, and constructed a complex and long-lasting civilization with a written language, advanced mathematics, and stunningly accurate calendars

Mercenaries joined the conquest and raced to capture the human and material wealth of the New World.

three crops in particular–corn, beans, and squash, the so-called “three sisters”–provided nutritional needs necessary to sustain cities and civilizations.

. But native populations adapted: they fished, hunted small mammals, and gathered nuts and berries. Native peoples spread across North America

Montezuma was killed along with a third of Cortes’s men in la noche triste, the “night of sorrows.”

Pigs ran rampant through the Americas, transforming the landscape as the spread throughout both continents.

After two years of conflict, a million-person strong empire was toppled by disease, dissension, and a thousand European conquerors.

But without the rich gold and silver mines of Mexico, the plantation-friendly climate of the Caribbean, or the exploitive potential of large Indian empires, North America offered little incentive for Spanish officials.

As time went on, the wife became pregnant. Her and her husband were very, very happy.

The milk in the breasts of the women with infants dried up and thus in a short while the infants perished.

Spaniards who immediately behaved like ravening wild beasts, wolves, tigers, or lions that had been starved for many days.

not only stabbing them and dismembering them but cutting them to pieces as if dealing with sheep in the slaughter house.

But I should not say "than beasts" for, thanks be to God, they have treated beasts with some respect;

Native Americans lacked the immunities that Europeans and Africans had developed over centuries of deadly epidemic

Men typically hunted and women typically gathered and prepared wild foods. Rich and diverse diets fueled massive population growth across the continent.

When crop yields began to decline, farmers would simply move to another field and allow the land to recover and the forest to regrow before they would again cut the forest, burn the undergrowth, and restart the cycle

Portuguese established forts along the Atlantic coast of Africa during the fifteenth century, inaugurating centuries of European colonization there

Native Americans lacked the immunities that Europeans and Africans had developed over centuries of deadly epidemics and so when Europeans arrived, carrying smallpox, typhus, influenza, diphtheria, measles, and hepatitis, plagues decimated native communities. Death rates tended to be highest near European communities who traveled with children, as children tended to carry the deadliest diseases.9 Many died in war and slavery, but millions died in epidemics. All told, in fact, some scholars estimate that as much as 90 percent of the population of the Americas perished within the first century and a half of European contact

By presuming the natives had no humanity, the Spaniards utterly abandoned theirs.

Native cultures understood ancestry as matrilineal: family and clan identity proceeded along the female line, through mothers and daughters, rather than fathers and sons.

One single building, Pueblo Bonito, stretched over two acres and rose five stories.

Cahokia experienced what one archeologist has called a “big bang” around the year 1050 that included “a virtually instantaneous and pervasive shift in all things political, social, and ideological.”4

“They are very gentle and without knowledge of what is evil; nor the sins of murder or theft,

Obatala, another god, reflected upon this situation, then went to Olorun for permission to create dry land for all kinds of living creatures to inhabit.

When Obatala returned to his home in the sky for a visit, Olokun summoned the great waves of her vast oceans and sent them surging across the land.

He was given permission, so he sought advice from Orunmila, oldest son of Olorun and the god of prophecy.

The new people built huts as Obatala had done, and soon Ife prospered and became a city

Everyday she had something new that she had to have. These were the results of being pregnant and carrying her child.

So pretty soon, the otter decided he said, “ I think there is some dirt or mud way, way down at the bottom of the ocean. IF we brought up some of that mud, perhaps we could put it on turtle’s back and perhaps this creature from the sky world could live and sustain herself on the back of turtle.”

In the sky world, there were beautiful, beautiful trees and wonderful plants with bright colors and delicious fruits to be eaten.

they flew underneath her and sure enough they caught her

And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament: and it was so.

And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle after their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth after his kind: and God saw that it was good.

And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle after their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth after his kind: and God saw that it was good.

open access

It was all envisioned by Sir Tim Berners-Lee 25 years ago

I first witnessed this power out on the Yard, that communal green space in the center of the campus where the students gathered and I saw everything I knew of my black self multiplied out into seemingly endless variations. There were the scions of Nigerian aristocrats in their business suits giving dap to bald-headed Qs in purple windbreakers and tan Timbs. There were the high-yellow progeny of A.M.E. preachers debating the clerics of Ausar-Set. There were California girls turned Muslim, born anew, in hijab and long skirt. There were Ponzi schemers and Christian cultists, Tabernacle fanatics and mathematical geniuses. It was like listening to a hundred different renditions of “Redemption Song,” each in a different color and key. And overlaying all of this was the history of Howard itself. I knew that I was literally walking in the footsteps of all the Toni Morrisons and Zora Neale Hurstons, of all the Sterling Browns and Kenneth Clarks, who’d come before.

Eternal Return

Moreover, Gibbon carefully studied and compared all the primary sources, and it may be urged that he has given a truer, fuller, and more attractive account of the period than can be found in any one of them. His Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is certainly a work of the highest rank; but, nevertheless, it is only report of others' reports. It is therefore not a primary but a secondary source.

I BM GroupTalk

ANNOTATION The information in B is additional to and subsidiary to that in A. Annotation is used by one person to write the equivalent of "margin notes" or other criticism on another's document, for example. Example: The relationship between a newsgroup and its articles. Acyclic.