The nativist perspective emphasizes inborn or innate human capabilities (i.e., "nature") as being responsible for language development.

The nativist and the cognitive dovelopmentalisl perspectives emphasize the contributions of "nature," whereas tho behaviorist and interaclionist perspectives focus more on the contributions of "nurture."

Several different perspectives have been proposed as theoretical bases for more fully understanding language development. These perspectives have varied in the ways they believe nature and nurture influence language developmonl.

A child is considered lo be a "blank slate" (Karmiloff & Karmiloff-Smilh, 2001), and loaming occurs due to associations established between stim-uli, responses, and events that occur after tho response behavior.

a wide range of children's literature should bo road lo children so thnl L1iey can .develop and test hypotheses about how language is used Lo communicate.

The ability to learn language is a quality of the human species because humans obviously are not designed to acquire one language over another. Healthy infants are able "lo learn any of the world's 3,000 languages" (Rushton, Eitelgeorge, & Zickafoose, 2003, p. 13).

The ability to learn language is a quality of the human species because humans obviously are not designed to acquire one language over another.

For example, when an infonl is making sounds while in the presence of a par-ent and says "ma-ma," the parent may rush to tho infant, show signs of delight, and say, "Oh, you said 'ma-ma'!" This positive response from the parent increases the chances that the infant will repeal those sounds. Likewise, speech that elicils no response or is ignored is less likely to be repeated.

This process is sometimes referred to as hypothesis testing. Children test their hypotheses or sets of assumptions of how language is spoken, arliculnted, used, and manipulated.

Healthy infants are able "lo learn any of the world's 3,000 languages"

A comprehensive theory of language development would need lo consider linguistic complexities and address each of the five aspects of language knowledge.

34 m Chapter 2 The zone of proximal development refers lo the difference between what a child can accomplish alone and what he can accomplish with an adult's (or more capable peer's) mediation or assistance.

long-standing debate about the roles of nature and nurture in influencing an individual's develo

Within routines, children experience each of the five aspects of language knowl-edge: phonological, semantic, syntaclic, morphemic, and pragmatic.

com-munication loop, a circular or cycle-like sharing and exchanging of tho roles of speaker and listener

Patterns of Interaction-Overview • Eye contact and sh~red reference • Communlcatlon loop • Child-directed speech • Verbal mapping • Questioning • Linguistic scaffolding • Mediation

The intoractionist porspective encourages teachers to focus on providing many social interactions in which oral and written language are used.

ondition Immersion Demonstration Engagement Expectations Responsibility Approximations Employment Response Description Child is surrounded by language used by others. Child witnesses how language ls used by others for specific purposes. Child is encouraged to participate in language interactions. Beginning in infancy, adults and siblings address child expecting a response. Child creates message in response to language of others. Child's early forms of speech are accepted as "real communication" by others. Child is given opportunities lo "try out" his/her developing language competencies. Child receives feedback on their use of language to communicate. Example At home, the child hears conversations of family members throughout the day. At the family dinner table, the child hears a request to pass the salad and listens to a sibling tell about her day at school. During storybook sharing, the child Is encouraged lo name the objects pictured in the book. At snack lime, the parent asks the child if he wants a graham cracker or a cheese cracker and waits for the child to respond. When her mother says, "it's really chilly today,n the child responds, "What does chilly mean?" When the child is asked if he wants some juice, the child responds "ju-Ju". This Is accepted by the parent as "Yes, I want juice." During a family mealtime, the child is encouraged to tell about his experiences while playing at the park earlier that day. While on a walk, the child sees a small, fluffy dog, and calls ii a kitty. His mother says, "Oh, it's a small dog, not a kitty. See it does·not have a long, fluffy tall like a kitten."

Teachers who follow a behaviorist perspectivo would focus on the stimuli and reinforcements that children experience in regard lo language use.

While the behaviorist porspoclive does explain how some words and phrases are learned, il does nol provide a complete explanation for lhe development of other language competencies.

A child is considered lo be a "blank slate" (Karmiloff & Karmiloff-Smilh, 2001), and loaming occurs due to associations established between stim-uli, responses, and events that occur after tho response behavior.

teachers would implement a curriculum that recognizes the importance of the development of specific cognitive mechanisms as precursors lo the onset of language, such as object permanence and symbolic representation.

the nalivist perspective describes language development as an innate, instinctual process where children develop language by discovering the structure of their language

The nativist perspective emphasizes inborn or innate human capabilities (i.e., "nature") as being responsible for language development.

Communication loops, shared reference, CDS, verbal mapping, queslioning, linguistic scaffolding. and mediation all facilitate language development. Through these pnlterns of interaction, children's language clevolopment is enhanced. These inleraction patterns are present in home, community, and school settings, although there may be some modifications due lo the child's level of development and the interaction style of the adults or older children in the environment.

The human brain appears to bo "prewired" for the development of language (Anderson & Lightfoot, 2002; Chomsky, 2002; Eliot, 1999; Obler & Gjerlow, 1999; Pinker, 1994). As specific regions of the human brain mature, language develop-ment occurs. This maturation begins in the womb as the fetus develops. This sols the stage for later complex development of tho neural connections in the brain that are involved in receiving and producing language. In addition lo brain maturation, 8 critical requirement for language development is that il needs to occm in onviron· ments where language is used in social interaction. In this way, bolh nature and nurture are involved in language development.

Theoretical Perspectives nnd Contexts of Language Develop1nent ;1~ 37 TABLE2.2 cambourne's Conditions Supporting Oral Language Development

The difference between what a child can accomplish alone and whal she can accomplish with an adult's (or more capable peer's) mediation or assistance is termed Lhe zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978). What a child accomplishes independently is her developmental level. For example, the zone of p

Thus, language is "taught" through situations in which children are encouraged to imilato others' speech and to devolop associations between verbal stimuli (i.e., words) and objects

According lo Piaget, lhe second stage of cognitive development is the preopera-tional stage. This stage begins al about 2 years of age and extends to about 7 years of nge. Children in this stage "begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings" (Santrock. 2001, p. 36). Piaget (1955) considered children's initial speech to be egocentric, focused on their own perceptions, which may reflect distorted perceptions or relations. Gradually, as children develop cognitively, their speech becomes socialized, or reflective of more logical thinking

28 m Chnpter 2 extensive opportunities for children lo explore language and engage in hypothesis testing of their developing knowledge of language. By ha\'ing opportunities to use and explore language in both its oral and wrillon forms, a child's LAD is activated, resulling in his discovery of the strncturo of his language (syntactic and morphemic knowledge). For example, a wide range of children's literature should bo road lo children so thnl L1iey can .develop and test hypotheses about how language is used Lo communicate. Opportunities lo draw nnd write encourage children lo communicate f)nd create meaning based on their ideas of how language works. Cognitive Developmental Perspective The cognitive developmental perspective is based on the work of Jean Pingel (1955). The emphasis of this perspective is that language is acquired as maturation occurs and cognitive competencies develop. Whereas the nalivisl perspective emphasizes the inborn language mechanism, the cognitive developmental perspective assumes that cognitive development is a "prerequisite nnd foundation for language learn-ing" (Karmiloff & Karmiloff-Smith, 200'1, p. 5}. This perspective also proposes that a child learns language by using the same mechanisms as for other learning. Thus, there is no unique language mechanism. The close relation between cognitive devel-opment and language is based on the beliof that. for language lo develop, specific cognilivo growth must occur first.

a wide range of children's literature should bo road lo children so thnl L1iey can .develop and test hypotheses about how language is used Lo communicate. Opportunities lo draw nnd write encourage children lo communicate f)nd create meaning based on their ideas of how language works.

Children ore not taught language: rather, "children actually reinvent it, generation after gen-eration" (Pinker, 1994, p. 32), Children are active participants in their language development. In a sense, children teach themselves language. Through the acquisi-tion process, children construct their knowledge of the ways language is used nnd manipulated.

Opportunities lo draw nnd write encourage children lo communicate f)nd create meaning based on their ideas of how language works.

Chomsky con-tends that all people inherently have the capacity to acquire language due lo cogni-tive structures that process language differently from other stimuli.

"Language is a biological adaptation lo communicate information ... language is the product of a well-engineered biologi-cal instinct"

The nativist and the cognitive dovelopmentalisl perspectives emphasize the contributions of "nature," whereas tho behaviorist and interaclionist perspectives focus more on the contributions of "nurture." By understanding the contributions of each theory, teachers will better understand the process of language development and will be better able to facilitate language development in their classrooms.

The most effec· live scaffolding promotes the highest level of functioning with the lowest level of support.

This perspective contends that children acquire language through their attempts to communicate with the world around them.

Thus, language is "taught" through situations in which children are encouraged to imilato others' speech and to devolop associations between verbal stimuli (i.e., words) and objects

The nativist and the cognitive dovelopmentalisl perspectives emphasize the contributions of "nature," whereas tho behaviorist and interaclionist perspectives focus more on the contributions of "nurture."

An early childhood classroom teacher has a crilical role in establishing a learning environment in which the language conlexls provide opporlunilies for children lo continue developing their language competencies.

"prewired"

thus their language development is impaired.

The close relation between cognitive devel-opment and language is based on the beliof that. for language lo develop, specific cognilivo growth must occur first.

Pinker concluded that it must come from human biological instinct rather than from the existence of the culture.

While no one the-ory provides a complete and irref utablc explanation of language development, each theory contributes significant ideas and concepts, which over Lime have clarified our awareness of the ways language develops.

Each of these factors contribute to the context in which language develops.

Linguistic scaffolding involves supporting children's speech by recognizing their linguistic capabilities and assisting them in building a conversation.

Because this speech is ,often in Lhe form of phrases or single words, il is referred to here as "ullerances" rather than sentences,

The communication loop is severed whenever one of the participants fails to continue participating, either by not listening lo the speaker or not responding as a speaker.

Wernicke's area,

Broca's area

Harris (1990) pointed out that the success of these scaffolded conversations depends on the adult's sensi-tivity Lo and interpretation of the child's communicative attempt.

For a person to write, a message must be cognitively encoded in a writing system, and the muscles of the hand must be coor-dinated to produce the appropriate written symbols.

Not only does the concept of the zone of proximal development provide us with an idea of development to come, but it emphasizes the crucial role of adults in chil-dren's development of language.

Positive reinforce· ment may come from the excited response of parents to thoir child's verbal attempts.

Positive reinforcomenls using attention and approval would be given lo encourage children lo interact using language.

One of the distinguishing features of concepts and schemata is that they reflect experience broader Umn that of the individual person.

These perspectives have varied in the ways they believe nature and nurture influence language developmonl.

For "language" to exist, Piaget contended, the "capacity for mental represen· talion must be present"

While languages may differ dramatically with respect to linguistic features, the development and use of language in all cultures is universal.

people inherently have the capacity to acquire language

Is a child a "blank slate" at birth, and do the experiences or "nurture" provided in the envi-ronment predominantly determine language development'! Or is the child already "preprogrammed" for language develo11ment in such a way that heredity and matu-ration are the major influences, with experience and context exerting only limited influence'

A semanlic_nelwork, or schema, develops when a child_begins_JQ_ see the relations between concept~.

The development of semantic knowledge is closely Lied Lo the develop-ment of con~pJual knowled~(V

Initially, a child's knowledge of the aspects or componenls of language will be only receptive. This means the child will perceive the specific characteristics of lan-guage but will not be able to produce language that demonstrates this knowledge.

Languag"a'is essential to society. It forms the foundation of our perceptions, com-municntion!f and daily interactions.

This text differs from other language development texts in ils attention to lan8!!Q.@_ a~municg_li9Il..!J!!.J1er than a fo_cus on spi3_e.ch_pro_ctu<1tion ~nd..th~_.de.v.elopment of articulation. This approach recognizes that language is a medium of communi-cation with others and within us.

You will be talking with children as they interact in your classroom, engaging in the learning activilies you provide. As you read books to and with children, you will introduce the children to written lan-guage. ·when you create classroom posters and other displays involving print, you are showing children how written language can be used to communicate.

For example, in English, adjec-tives immediately precede the nouns they modify: "The beautiful flower was on the table," not "The flower beautiful was on the table." When children are learning lo speak English, their awareness of the position of adjectives relative lo the nouns they modify is evident even in their two-word ullerances: "big ball," "blue car." This occurs long before children can consciously identify adjectives and the words they

How phonological knowledge develops.

Language is acquirod through knowledgo and awareness of the phonologico semantic, syntaclic, morphemic, and pragmatic aspects of both oral and written Jar guage.

Listening and reading nre receptive in nature-receiving and comprehending a message createc:ruy anolller orally (i.e., listening) or in written language (i.e., reading). On the other hand, s.peak-0,g and writin~expressive in nature.

Pmgmnlic knowledge involves the .. kno~g~ ,?£~~~re~s~a\~t of_the communication and how language is used to achieve that intent.

Children's communicative competencies involve both receptive and expressive language. Receptive language refers lo a child's comprehension of wore!§ (oral or written): when a specific word is used, the child knows what it refers to or represents. Expressive language refers lo a child's production of language lo communicate. This develops orally first during social interactions and as a child's speech mechanisms mature allowing the child to gain control over producing specific speech

Learning to distinguish between similar-sounding words, such as can and car, is facilitated by the different ways in which those two words are used in meaningful contexts.

This means the child will perceive the specific characteristics of lan-guage but will not be able to produce language that demonstrates this knowledge.

Receptive language refers lo a child's comprehension of wore!§ (oral or written): when a specific word is used, the child knows what it refers to or represents. Expressive language refers lo a child's production of language lo communicate.

Children's wordplay in rhyming games is an indicator of U1eir early metalinguistic phonological knowledge.

Written language uses aifferenl vocabu-lar, and a more comple~ worg__order or syn~

Listening is a critical receptive language skill because listening is necessary to "receive language.

Rather, how children scored in kindergarten indicated how tl10y might score in elementary school and junior high.

morphemes

Morphemic Knowledg

Syntactic Knowledg

Semantic Knowledg

A teaclie?s awareness of levels of language knowledge is important in determin-ing the developmental appropriateness of lnnguago-relaled tasks in early childhood classrooms. Teachers of young children need to structure their learning activities to involve both linguistic and metalinguistic knowledge;

trosodic_I.eatures are also com· municated in sign language, through facial expression, body osture, and rhythmic signing

Prosodic features.

Phonological Knowledg

dynamic ono,

Receptive language refers lo a child's comprehension of wore!§ (oral or written): when a specific word is used, the child knows what it refers to or represents. Expressive language refers lo a child's production of language lo communicate. This develops orally first during social interactions and as a child's speech mechanisms mature allowing the child to gain control over producing specific speech sounds.

The inability to participate successfully inn conversation or the inability to clearly articulate the sounds in words may decrease the likelihood that other children will attempt to speak or play with them.

Children's ability to urticulnle and cliscriminato different sounds and words when using language lo communicnle rnprosonts their Ii nguislic Jovel of phonological knowledge. Similarly. childrnn's ability to corn pa ohond tho semantic meanings of others' spoech and to croato their own moan-i ngf ul spooch rnpresenls their linguistic level of semantic knowledge. Tho linguistic lovol or syntactic knowledge is evident us children aro ablo lo express Lhoir icloas in a form thal is grammnlically appropriate Lo their dialect or language. Morphemic knowl· odgo at tho linguistic lovol is ovidonl when a child can use appropriate plural forms of 11m111s or use prefixos and suffixos. Tho linguistic level or pragmatic knowledge is clem-onstratod by a child's use of "ploaso" and "thank you" iu social situations.

Describe the range of language competencies needed by children • Explain each of the five aspects of language knowledge ? • Distinguish between the three levels of language knowledge ' • Identify the receptive and expressive modes of oral and written language • Explain the critical role of children's oral language competencies in school settings

To be able lo function successfully in a society and its culture (and subcultures), children need lo develop a wide range of language competencies. Nol only do chil-dren need lo acquire an oral language, they need lo be able to use that language effectively in a variety of sellings.

Learning to distinguish between similar-sounding words, such as can and car, is facilitated by the different ways in which those two words are used in meaningful contexts.

There is no one standard of communicative competency that teachers should encourage children to attain. Insload, it is important for teachers to recognize that children will need a wide range of communication competencies lo ensure their effectiveness in a varielfol settings throughoutfueirlivos.

Oral language development and written language development are interrelated processes that culminate in children's communicative com~encies. Languag"a'is essential to society. It forms the foundation of our perceptions, com-municntion!f and daily interactions.

Oral language development and written language development are interrelated processes that culminate in children's communicative com~encies.

anguag"a'is essential to society. It forms the foundation of our perceptions, com-municntion!f and daily interactions.

Differences between languages may be problematic for second language learners because syntax varies from language to language.

Overgeneralization decreases as language development proceeds and as children have opportunities to interact with adults and older siblings who have acquired more complete morphe-mic owledge.

Through lan-guage, we represent the world and l.oarn about the world.

Each language system has rules

some words have related meanings but are used in dif-ferent ways in speech and in written language and have different word structure

In every language, some speech sounds are more important than others. Gradually, young children learn to discriminate and produce the speech sounds that are found in their home language.

When children are acquiring language, they are developing five different aspects, or components, oflanguage knowledge: phonological, semantic, syntactic, morphemic, and pragmatic.

To be able lo function successfully in a society and its culture (and subcultures), children need lo develop a wide range of language competencies. Nol only do chil-dren need lo acquire an oral language, they need lo be able to use that language effectively in a variety of sellings.

There is no one standard of communicative competency that teachers should encourage children to attain. Insload, it is important for teachers to recognize that children will need a wide range of communication competencies lo ensure their effectiveness in a varielfol settings throughoutfueirlivos.

·when you create classroom posters and other displays involving print, you are showing children how written language can be used to communicate. Through these interactions, you will have a significant influence on children's language development. As you prepare for your role as an early childhood professional, it is important that you acquire knowledge of how children develop language competen-cies.

TABLE 1.2 levels of Language Knowledge Level I. linguistic Knowledge II. Metalinguistic Knowledge Ill. Verbalization of Metalinguistic Knowledge FIGURE 1.4 Definition Knowledge of how to use language to communicate Conscious awareness of specific features of language Can verbally respond to questions about specific language features Typical Age of First Evidence Toddlers and preschoolers Preschool and kindergarten late kindergarten and primary Developmental Progression of Three Levels of language Knowledge Level Ill: Verballzalfon of Metalinguistic Knowledge Level II: Metalinguistic Knowledge Level I: Linguistic Knowledge Example Beginning to use language effectively to communicate needs and Intents Begins to focus on and manipulate specific sounds In rhyming games or to notice how alphabet letters represent sounds; "Oh, there's a J. That's my name, Jon." Can explain how cup and pup sound alike

Children's development of phonologi-cal knowledge is foslered by their perceptual ability to distinguish sounds and also by the ways in which language is used around them.

Languag"a'is essential to society. It forms the foundation of our perceptions, com-municntion!f and daily interactions

·when you create classroom posters and other displays involving print, you are showing children how written language can be used to communicate. Through these interactions, you will have a significant influence on children's language development. As you prepare for your role as an early childhood professional, it is important that you acquire knowledge of how children develop language competen-cies. This knowledge will enable you to provide guidance, support, and mediation to enhance children's development.

---Ymmg cl1ildren acquire morphemic kriow)eilge that is present in their linguistic environments. In settings where a particular dialect is spoken, children will first acquire the morphemic knowledge represented in that dialect. In figuring oul how language is used and words arc structured, children appear to be looking for pat-terns and hypothesizing. Children's O\'ergeneralizations of morphological patterns are an example of this.

Expressive language refers lo a child's production of language lo communicate. This develops orally first during social interactions and as a child's speech mechanisms mature allowing the child to gain control over producing specific speech sounds.

Through lan-guage, we represent the world and l.oarn about the world. Without language, a society and its culture cannot exist.

Children's development of phonologi-cal knowledge is foslered by their perceptual ability to distinguish sounds and also by the ways in which language is used around them

This develops orally first during social interactions and as a child's speech mechanisms mature allowing the child to gain control over producing specific speech sounds.

For example, a mother of a 5-year-old might dis-cover that the verbal whining she often heard at home from her child never occurred when the child w.as at school.

Early on in lhe development of communicative competence, children's efforts appear to have purpose or intent. An 8-month-old child who looks at her mother \vilh outslrelchod arms and produces strained vocalizations (/uh/ /uh/) is assumed to be communicating thal she wants to be picked up. If not initially sue· cessful, the child may repeat her request, vocalize louder, or gesture more emphati· cally (Gleason, 1993).

for example, the English word ball references the idea of a round object that has certain properties of rolling and bouncing and that is often used in a game or other physical activity.

Expressive language refers lo a child's production of language lo communicate. This develops orally first during social interactions and as a child's speech mechanisms mature allowing the child to gain control over producing specific speech sounds.

Similarly; when children begin to learn comparative forms of adjectives, they may see the pattern of regular comparative forms, which are made with -er (happier) and -est (11appiest) endings. However, some children apply this rule to all adjec-Ji.Y.es, as in fun, funner, funnest, or even best, bester, bestest. Overgeneralization decreases as language development proceeds and as children have opportunities to interact with adults and older siblings who have acquired more complete morphe-mic owledge.

Research has documented few instances of children violaling syntactic rules simply because utterances that do not observe the spe-cific language's syntax are nol comprehendible, useful, or meaningful.

Prosodic features. In addition to the perception of sounds in a language,) oung children notice differences in the way sounds are used in a language to add mean-ing to what is said.

attention to lan8!!Q.@_ a~municg_li9Il..!J!!.J1er than a fo_cus on spi3_e.ch_pro_ctu<1tion ~nd..th~_.de.v.elopment of articulation. This approach recognizes that language is a medium of communi-cation with others and within us.

Young children acquire knowledge of these prosodic features as well as the spe· cific sounds used in a language through interactions wilh people in their environ-ment. Children's auditory perception of these prosodic features contributes to both !heir phonological knowledge and their subsequent somantic knowledge. Infants' perception of the speech intonation of those around them is evident when they begin lo babble aud appear lo mimic the intonation of others. Infants learn to sense when U10ir parent or caregiver is happy, excited, calm, tense, or angry from the intonation, loudness, tempo, or rhythm of the adult's speech.

Insload, it is important for teachers to recognize that children will need a wide range of communication competencies lo ensure their effectiveness in a varielfol settings throughoutfueirlivos.

Children who ore in environments where oral language and written languug are used in monningful ways will gradually acquire competencies in using language t communicate and to solve problems.

he concluded tl1at children use language differently in oral narrative than the , d i written narr.aihte,

In Dyson's study, childrcm used oral language (talk) lo guide and facilitate the creation of their written stories. They used oral language as a tool in conjunction with written language to create stories. In addition to using oral language in the pro-cess of producing written language, young children are also developing their ability to use language differently in different sellings.

Another aspect of school success related to oral language competencies is a chilcl's social-interaction skills (Windsor, 1995). Children who have oral language competencies wHI be more successful in communicating with both teachers and peers. Their success in carrying on conversations and in responding in learning activities will contribute to further success at school. Children who have difficulty communicating may be ignorod by peers or excluded from informal social or col-laborative interactions. The inability to participate successfully inn conversation or the inability to clearly articulate the sounds in words may decrease the likelihood that other children will attempt to speak or play with them. In the section that follows, several research studies will

For 2·year-olds, the use of a range of functions for speech was identified as n predictor of later achievement. For 31/2-year-olds, the effective predictor of later achievement wns the children's compe· tent use of a range of different sentence types. Another aspect of school success related to oral language com

At school, children spend much of t11eir Lime listening to t11eir teacliersoi· to their classmates. Their ability lo listen and understand their teacher's directions a,id instruction and the contributions by their classmates influences what and how much is learned; however, explicit attention to developing listening comP.etencies may be absent in many cla

FIGURE 1.1 semantic Network or Schema for Ball materials rubber plastic leather felt colors I white ---.._ I red ............... black patterned BALL shape/ oblong spherical Lnngungo in Our Lives ~~ 7 /actions bounce throw kick hit ~ purpose/function baseball soccer football oval texture tennis smooth rough dimpled fuzzy schema. A young child's schema for baJJ will initially be much more limited in com-plexity and may include only "roundness," "throwing," and "bouncing." Vocabulary development is closely__rolated to general linguistic competence and to road ins comprehension.f Children with larger and more developed vocobularie! have more optiorrsfor expressing what they wa[!l to say a~1d1 thus, hav_e grnat.er hn-\ guistic nexibility. One nctivily that contributes to vocabulary development is story-book sharing, where an adull rends to a child. The vocabulary used in storybooks is often more descriptive and precise thnn is the vocabulary used in daily conversa-tions. Storybook experiences expand a child's listening vocabulary. A larger vocab• ulary also increases a child's ability to comprehend written text because reading comprehension is directly rolated to listening comprehension and oral vocabulary. When a specific word (and concept) is part of a child's oral vocabulary or listening vocabulary, the child can more easily comprehend and decode it when he encoun-ters the word in written text. Children's developmen

Storybook sharing is a very effective way to encourage children to begin to perceive pros~TIMsiTiunderstancling language because the range of language used in slor_ybooks-,ma the range of dramatic expression in story sharing are much greater than in day-to-day conversations.

Children who are unable lo consciously focus on or segment the sounds in a word may experience difficulty in learning to read and write (Lieberman, 1973, in Scarborough, 2002). Prosodic features. In addition to the percepti

it is important that you acquire knowledge of how children develop language competen-cies. This knowledge will enable you to provide guidance, support, and mediation to enhance children's development.

arger vocab• ulary also increases a child's ability to comprehend written text because reading comprehension is directly rolated to listening comprehension and oral vocabulary.

Children may create their own words based on their understanding of how prefixes (or suffixes or plural endings) work. To illustrate, a 5-year-old girl was being chided by her mother because a doting aunt had given her another doll during a recent visit to the aunt's home. When her mother asked her why she accepted another doll that she really did not need, the girl replied, "Mommy, Aunty insisted, and I couldn't un-sisl!"

For example, first-graders may learn to decode words that contain digraphs and blends, but will not be able to explain the difference between a digraph and a blend.

While linguists and child development educators agree that recep· live language begins lo develop prior to expressive language, there is lillle agree-ment regarding how long expressive-language aevelopment logs behind receptive language development (Owens, 1988).

Conversational skills are a criti-cal part of pragmatic knowledge because they affect a child's ability to engage in classroom and social interactions

not simply repetitions of prior adult speech.

This develops orally first during social interactions and as a child's speech mechanisms mature allowing the child to gain control over producing specific speech sounds.

ltlss}•ntactic knowledge is crucial becnusolHcqfnffiunaficnl"""orsynlnclrcstruclures carry implied meaning. Word ardor affects the meaning of what is said.

Storybook experiences

Semantic networks-schemnta-are thought to be cognitive structures in our memory that organize our conceptual knowledge.

function

children will need a wide range of communication competencies lo ensure their effectiveness in a varielfol settings throughoutfueirlivos

Without language, a society and its culture cannot exist.

Children learn that word order, or syntax, is important in creating meaning and in comprehending another's message. The queslion ''Did you hil Jack?" asks for dif-ferent information than "Did Jack hit you?" Knowledge of the importance of word order is known linguistically al an unconscious level before children can verbal-ize their understanding of that language concept.

it builds the learning within a relevant context from the very start, so students are naturally more engaged.

I even have a couple of colleagues that create dummy Twitter accounts so they can follow and discuss conversations about sports that they don’t people to know about. The key point is that you can create any identity you so choose.

In a Post-Snowden world, we understand that there really isn’t any difference between our actions in the online world, and the “real spaces” around us.

 The truth of the matter is that you already have various digital breadcrumbs that already exist from the residue you leave online as you live your life.

Avatar in this context primarily comes from business or marketing and refers to an ideal client or targeted audience.

there are opportunities to create different identities in different places, and share more in one space that you would another.

The key point is that you can create any identity you so choose.

you’ll have to consider how public you’ll want to be online.

describes actively framing, curating, sharing, and directing your own engagement streams throughout the learning environment. This means that you take control of the various parts of your digital identity and shape the digital identity that you want.

The end result is an identity spread across numerous digital spaces that is often incomplete.

Our online and offline interactions are woven together into a narrative that forms different parts of our identity.

to discriminate between reliable and unreli-able sources.

“motivation to learn their discipline and their willing-ness to work on their projects [for] longer hours indicatethat they behave...like high achievers

he group dynamic creates an interdependentteam in which students must each do their part,

Students at the PBL school were equally ableto answer procedural questions that used formulas, butthey were superior in answering applied and conceptualproblems

Children solve real-world problems by de-signing their own inquiries, planning their learning, or-ganizing their research, and implementing a multitudeof learning strategies

The outcome ofPBL is greater understanding of a topic, deeper learning,higher-level reading, and increased motivation to learn

Stu-dents drive their own learning through inquiry, as wellas work collaboratively to research and create projectsthat reflect their knowledge.

PBL raises students self-esteem by beginningthe cycle of success

Children re-tainmoreinformationwhentheylearnbydoing.

Research sup-ports that students using PBL perform better on bothstandardized assessments and project tests than stu-dentsintraditionaldirectinstructionprograms,andthatthey learn not only real-world application of skills, butalso analytic thinking

Scaffolded instructionoccurs in PBL when teachers use organizers that aid stu-dents in bridging the gaps that exists in knowledge andskill, and it makes the tasks manageable and achievable.

Childrenlearn so much about themselves when they are empow-ered to make their own learning decisions.

Consistent employment and prac-tice of these skills will strengthen them over time andlead to proficiency and mastery.

Accountability to peers often has greaterconsequences and provides more motivation for stu-dents than if they were only responsible to the teacher.

Furthermore, these students demonstrateda solid grasp of the concepts and were able to performwell on traditional tests

standardized testing does not measure criti-cal twenty-first-century skills that are integral for studentsuccess.

The outcome ofPBL is greater understanding of a topic, deeper learning,higher-level reading, and increased motivation to learn.

For these reasons, I believe that individuals should build their own personal cyberinfrastructure.

We create a trail of digital breadcrumbs that help create the residue that makes up our online identities.

By having a manual of who we are, and who we would like to be digitally, we can create consistency in how we represent ourselves.

At this point, you should consider how far you want to extend this version of your digital identity you’re in the process of creating.

Build yourself a scrapbook in Pinterest or some other bookmarking tool to collect these resources.

Web literate individuals have a multitude of opportunities to utilize digital spaces and tools to create versions of our identities.

I believe that by keeping your design choices consistent across multiple spaces, you create a sense of professionalism and polish in your presented materials.

Select images, photos, images, and colors that represent the identity you would like to use as your digital identity.

This means that you develop and direct the information streams that individuals use to interact with you online.