Walunas et al. show that CTLA-4 is an inhibitor of T cells. Their approach is to cross-link the receptors together, mimicking the cross-linking that would occur naturally upon receptor engagement. The effect of this is inhibition of T cell proliferation.

Linsley et al. study the differences between binding of CD28 and CTLA-4 to B7 molecules. Though they have similar avidities, they bind the B7 surface molecules using different conformations and kinetics.

Linsley et al. show that CTLA-4, like CD28, binds B7. Using a soluble version of CTLA-4, they show that it binds to B7 with an affinity of 12 nM.

Harper et al. present compelling evidence that CTLA-4 and CD28 share a similar function. They found that the receptors share similarities in structure, sequence, gene location, and expression patterns.

In this commentary, Linsley speculates on how the evidence for the roles of CD28 and CTLA-4 fits together. T-cell activation is more complex than scientists originally thought.

In this minireview, Bluestone summarizes the studies showing the nuances of CD28-mediated signaling. He discusses that different B7 molecules result in differing levels of activation, and that CTLA-4 has an inhibitory effect.

In this minireview, Jenkins summarizes the evidence for the role of CTLA-4. It was shown from multiple studies that CTLA-4 has an immunosuppressive effect.

Baskar et al. investigate the effect of B7 expression in tumor cells on the helper T cell immune response. They show that engineered tumor cells generate a helper T cell response and tumor rejection.

Townsend and Allison investigate whether expressing B7 on the surface of a tumor will enhance its rejection. They show that B7 expression results in a cytotoxic T cell immune response.

Chen et al. investigate whether expressing B7 on the surface of a tumor will enhance its rejection. They show a B7-dependent immune response by cytotoxic T cells.

June, Bluestone, Nadler, and Thompson review the research on B7 and CD28. Though they are the most commonly found members, each of these molecules is part of a larger receptor family of related molecules.

Linsley and Ledbetter summarize the research on CD28 and B7 molecules. The costimulatory signal needed for full T-cell activation is supplied through these surface molecules.

Votre référence est bien en bib, mais (hormis l'hyperlien), elle est totalement vide : si vou l'aviez exporté à partir de la bibliographie commune sur Zotero, elle aurait été plus fournie et les indices bib auraient alors fait sens.

c'est moins un article, qu'une partie d'un ouvrage commun

si c'est un chapitre, c'est un chapitre

les PUM sont ici la maison d'édition

référence qui aurait mérité d'être éditée dans la bibliographie

référence à intégrer dans la bibliographie

la référence est ici attendue

l'ajout de la référence aurait été nécessaire ici.

ces références auraient pu être intégrées au corps du texte avec les indices bib (sans appel de note)

il est conseillé de citer les revues en utilisant l'italique

Il s,agit davantage d'un billet de blog

idem

des ouvrages de références auraient permi d'enrichir un peu ce passage.

peut-être des références par éléments ? Comme Bush pour l'hypertextualité.

vous avez ici placé la bibliographie du cours, ce qui vous génère une bibliographie immense avec des entrées doubles... Était davantage attendue une bibliographie présentant les ouvrages dont vous vous êtes inspirée pour créer le compte rendu (dont l'ouvrage de référence).

même remarque que pour la référence précédente, de plus un espace manquant entre la page et son numéro

la référence est absente de la bibliographie : elle n'apparaît donc pas correctement

cette référence doit être éditée dans le module bibliographie

idem

cette référence aurait dû être éditée avec un indice bib et se retrouver dans le module bibliographie.

référence ?

la référence aurait dû être citée avec l'indice bib

les articles sont généralement cités entre guillemets

On cite généralement les références entre parenthèse, sans italique, mais cela montre ici que vous vous êtes appropriez l'édition dans stylo !

Vous avez ici placé l'indice bib entre parenthèse : cela créé une double parenthèse. Il faut le laisser entre crochet.

référence ?

ces références aurait mérités une intégration dans la bibliographie

les revues sont citées en italique

guillemets français de préférence

il aurait été attendu que soit citer le titre de l'article.

les revues sont à citer en italique

italique

exemples de références ?

quelques références étaient attendues ici

il y a ici un problème d'encodage (UTF8) dans le bib

indice bib

ibid

indice bib

indice bib

je suis flattée de la référence mais ce n'est pas moi (j'aurai aimé) qui suis derrière cette notion.

indice bib plutôt ici

un chapitre est généralement cité entre guillemets

le nom de l'auteur aurait pu être ôté dans l'indice bib (avec la présence préalable du tiret)

ces références auraient pu être intégrées dans le corps du texte avec les indices bib.

ces références auraient pu être placées dans le corps du texte

on cite en général un article entre guillemets

il s'agit d'une revue

des références inclues en bibliographies auraient été attendues.

où ? quels sont ces notions de réflexions ?

très bonne contextualisation de l'article qui aurait cependant mérité d'être cité (édition, date)

Cette référence aurait été mieux structurée si elle avait été intégrée dans le module bibliographique.

Vous auriez pu citer le principe d'hypertexte et Bush

à citer dans le corps de texte avec les indices bib

ibidem

référence nécessaire dans la bibliographie

références nécessaires

Les articles sont cités en règle générale entre guillemets et les revues en italique

il aurait été préférable de citer directement Doueihi ici

Vous auriez pu citer Vitali-Rosati ici, même si cette affirmation peut apparaître comme trop évidente, il vaut mieux toujours la référencer.

idem

Cette référence aurait due être éditée dans la suite de la phrase avec l'indice bib.

Ces références auraient dues être intégrées dans la bibliographie et citées avec les indices bib.

il manque un espace entre le mot et l'indice bib.

Pour citer un article, on le met en général entre guillemets afin de le différencier du nom de la revue qui est en italique

This study reports the tribological properties of graphene-lubricated 440C steel. At medium loads and under dry nitrogen environments, graphene is found to maximize its performance as a solid lubricant.

This study details the first experimental evidence of reproducible superlubricity at the microscale under ambient conditions. The self retraction of graphite mesas upon shearing is described as a direct evidence of ultra-low friction between the incommensurate surfaces. The variation in superlubric conditions with contact area is also described. A similar observation is made in the current study as well.

The authors demonstrate an experimental set up for finding friction between multi-walled nanotube layers using a nanomanipulator and insitu TEM imaging. Ultra-low friction is observed between the core and outer nanotube layers in a dry environment, which is similar to the superlubricity conditions in the present study.

The authors report bridging the gap between macroscale and nanoscale laws of friction. A linear relationship was found to exist between the friction force and contact area at both regimes. In the present study, authors also observed a similar phenomenon.

This study reports measurements of friction as a function of commensurability of the contacting surfaces using ultra-high vacuum scanning tunneling microscopy. Authors have used atomically clean surfaces to experimentally check the superlubric conditions. They found a match between experimental results and theoretical predictions.

This study compares the nanotribological properties of atomically thin sheets of 2D materials such as graphene, molybdenum disulfide, boron nitride, and niobium diselenide using friction force microscopy. The dependence of friction on the number of atomic sheets and substrate effect are also reported.

This book provides an overview of the theory and practice of tribology, that is, the science of interacting surfaces in motion.

The authors show that rats administered with 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-DG) increase their food intake, whereas this is abolished in animals with ZI lesions. 2-DG is a modified glucose molecule that inhibits the breakdown of glucose, leading to low levels of blood glucose. This increases food intake in order to restore blood glucose levels. The reduced food intake in 2-DG-treated rats with ZI lesions suggests that the ZI is necessary for food intake in response to low blood glucose.

This paper was one of the first to show that two populations of neurons in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus have opposing effects on food intake. They demonstrated that opotogenetic activation of AgRP-expressing neurons increases food intake, whereas activation of POMC-expressing neurons decreases food intake.

Dreyfus et al. used locus coeruleus, a region in the brain, to study neurotransmitter expression in brain. His group was able to show that the catecholamines can be expressed both in culture and in animals, making the locus coeruleus an excellent system to study the plasticity in brain.

Given that the plasticity occurs during development, the authors tested whether the plasticity can be observed in mature neurons as well. The authors performed these experiments in the ganglia of young and old rats and assessed the changes in the neurotransmitter, substance P.

Substance P had a significant increase in expression at young rats and at 6-month-old rats but not 2-year-old rats.

Jonakait et al. show that the loss of expression is not confined to the rat gut, but also observed in the cranial sensory and dorsal root ganglia of the embryonic rats. Here the authors have shown that the expression of catecholamine is lost for a certain time period during the development.

These studies suggest that, irrespective of embryonic origin, the loss in expression of neurotransmitters, catecholamine, and noradrenergic occur during development.

Jonakait et al. used the embryonic neural cells in the rat gut to understand the expression of noradrenergic cells.

It was shown that these neural cells exhibit several characteristics of noradrenergic cells at embryonic stages. The authors wanted to know if there were a change in expression levels of noradrenergic during the development. For a certain time period during the development, the expression of noradrenergic is lost; however, the uptake system of norepinephrine is present and functional.

In this review, Patterson discusses how we can manipulate the neurons’ decision to produce certain chemicals by altering the environmental factors. This manipulation can be performed during development by changing the fluid or culture conditions in which the neurons are growing.

This review by T. Hökfelt et al. discusses the identification of new neurotransmitters that are peptidergic in nature. Peptidergic refers to the neurons that release small peptides as their neurotransmitters.

The article provides a snapshot of peptidergic neurons identified in the nervous system, namely, the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system.

In this paper by Voineagu et al., the authors found that there is lower enrichment of prefrontal genes in autistic brains, suggesting that there's dysregulation in this region.

Schmader, Johns, and Barquissau found that the level of endorsement of the stereotype that men are better than women at math was a moderating variable for gender performance.

Women who more strongly endorsed the stereotype performed worse.

Martens et al. showed that values affirmation was effective under laboratory conditions.

Using more interactive teaching methods has been shown to improve conceptual understanding for students in college-level physics compared to traditional lecture-based teaching.

Interactive teaching has also been shown to reduce the gap in performance between women and men.

Kost, Pollock, and Finkelstein performed the initial assessment of the gender achievement gap in college students taking introductory physics at the University of Colorado at Boulder.

They found that most (but not all) of the gender achievement gap, could be attributed to previous preparation in the field.

Schmader, Johns, and Forbes suggest that stereotype threat might affect women's performance through three interconnected mechanisms:

1) It causes a physical stress response that can impair some aspects of brain function, reducing the baseline level of mental resources.

2) It causes women to actively monitor their performance, taking valuable mental resources away from the assigned task.

3) It causes women to actively repress negative feelings and thoughts, which also consumes mental resources.

Spencer, Steele, and Quinn performed some of the original experiments showing that the stereotype that men are better at math than women affected women's performance on math tests.

In these studies, the authors examined the role of the neurotransmitter substance P in nerve ganglia. The authors confirmed that the activity of substance P is dependent on sodium currents, changes within the cell, and impulsive activity.

The book chapter introduces the concept of gateway hypothesis – a model to inform how teenagers initiate and progress in the usage of illicit drugs. The chapter addresses these crucial questions from various fronts – neurobiology, animal studies, and epidemiological studies.

The article addresses a fundamental question: is nicotine a habit-forming drug or an addictive drug? The authors performed experiments in mice and concluded that nicotine shares several biological aspects with the drugs of abuse.

The review presents the available evidence that the drugs of abuse can alter the synaptic plasticity mechanisms in the dopaminergic circuit, the key pathway to processing reward in the brain.

The authors show that the cocaine, a drug of abuse, can activate genes at core histones, which can lead to a restructuring of chromatin. This restructuring could have an effect on long-lasting changes in the animal, for instance, modulating the body movements

The authors show that the cAMP response element binding protein (CREB)-binding protein (CBP) acetylate histones at the FosB promoter in the mouse striatum, thereby regulating the responses to cocaine.

The authors confirmed this finding by repeating this experiment in mice lacking a copy of the CBP gene. These mice exhibited a decrease response to cocaine than the animals that had an intact copy of the CBP gene.

In this letter, Paine notes the importance of predators to community stability not only to the system that he studied (the intertidal of the Pacific Northwest) but also that of other simple or complex systems worldwide.

A discussion of food webs, trophic relationships, species connectedness, and whether community structure and stability could be modeled based on these ideas.

This seminal paper on the indirect effects of predation in freshwater rivers demonstrated that the trophic cascades previously seen in marine and terrestrial systems also held true for river ecosystems.

Kendrick and colleagues measured GABA in the ZI in live sheep. They found that in food-deprived animals, GABA was increased in the ZI upon the sight and ingestion of food. This response did not occur when a non-food object was presented.

The authors performed retrograde mapping from the PVT and showed that neurons in the ZI directly project to the PVT. These cells were shown to express the protein cocaine- and amphetamine-related transcript (CART).

In this seminal Nature paper, Crick and co-workers demonstrate that a group of three bases codes for one amino acid; the code does not overlap; the sequence of bases is read from a fixed starting point; and the code is degenerate.

This review paper is an extended version of the paper you've read here with sections dedicated to similar questions such as: "Is the code universal?" and "Is the code overlapping?"

Von Ehrenstein and Lipmann demonstrate the genetic materials of a rabbit (a mammal) and E. coli (a bacterium) are compatible, suggesting the genetic code is universal!

Introgression, the movement of a gene from one species into the gene pool of another, has been known to speed up a population's response to an evolutionary selective pressure. It does this by increasing genetic diversity.

Grant and Grant documented recurring introgressive hybridization between medium ground finches and small ground finches.

Brown and Wilson (1956) argued that character displacement was a common part of geographical speciation. They explained that displacement happened most often as a product of genetic and ecological interaction when species first met.

Grant and Grant (1994) explored hybridization among finch species over 17 years. They concluded that hybrid traits were morphologically intermediate, which indicated the parent genes contributed to the offspring phenotype equally. Hybrids also varied more phenotypically.

The authors showed that ADAR proteins were able to deaminate adenosines not only in RNA duplexes but also in RNA-DNA heteroduplexes.

While this work was done in vitro, it may help understand the functions of ADAR in the cell, specifically the link between ADAR impairment and the autoimmune disease Aicardi-Goutieres Syndrome (AGS). Also it may be used as a new tool for DNA editing techniques.

A large group of scientists from several labs conducted an extensive study on the protein C2c2 (now known as Cas13a). They demonstrated that C2c2 was an RNA-guided RNA nuclease and predicted that it would be an important tool for RNA targeting.

Moreover, they showed that in vitro C2c2 once activated by the target binding could cleave not only the target but also the surrounding mRNA molecules. The authors termed this effect "the collateral cleavage."

https://youtu.be/RtYEiyoMOlM

This review outlines the synthesis, characterization, and applications of DLC films. The mechanism of friction and wear behaviors of DLC films and the conditions to achieve superlubricity are reported.

A systematic study on the influence of the organic linkers on the pore properties of a metal-organic framework. In this work, the authors use the same metallic cluster as a base and demonstrate how the small molecule linkers can be functionnalized to tune its properties.

Baldwin et al. described the relationship between the stratosphere and the troposphere. Changes to stratospheric circulation can, in turn, affect tropospheric weather patterns. This study notes that the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) was the pattern most strongly related to wintertime changes in stratospheric temperatures and circulation.

Shindell et al. described the importance of modeling stratospheric atmosphere dynamics to improve predictions of global climate conditions. They also determined that it was possible to program climate models to simulate climate patterns like the Arctic Oscillation when including greenhouse gas concentrations. This suggested that greenhouse gases can influence regional climates.

This was a pivotal paper in helping to develop a method of correcting satellite temperature data. By using satellite measurements over the early 1990s during the time of the Mount Pinatubo eruption, Reynolds and Smith were able to factor out the volcanic aerosols for a more accurate measurement of global temperatures.

This paper reviews the recent history of North Atlantic changes in convection and deep water formation. Waters are mixed downwards in the Greenland and Labrador Seas, but this study found that these locations are currently at opposite convective extremes.

The authors proposed that atmospheric forcings (such as the North Atlantic Oscillation) are influencing the location and quantity of water sinking into the deep ocean.

"Approaches to studying the ocean's role in climate can be divided into two types: understanding and modeling the ocean as part of the fully coupled climate system, and observing, quantifying, and modeling the dynamics of the ocean itself."

This comes from Lazier's chapter "The Oceans" in the book Natural Climate Variability on Decade-to-Century Time Scales, available online: https://www.nap.edu/read/5142/chapter/5#234

One of the elements of a global climate model is a simulation of CO₂ circulation.  However, models that begin in pre-industrial times include so much data that computers take a long time to complete the simulation. To decrease processing time, scientists sometimes set the start date of the simulation later, but this introduces error into the model. The authors of this paper found a way to account for this error (called the "cold-start" error) and discussed the implications for the climate models used by the IPCC. 

Levitus had previously performed a very similar study that focused on the temperature and salinity of the North Atlantic. More measurements have been collected since this study in 1989, making it possible to examine more of the world's oceans and to update the scientific understanding of what was going on in the North Atlantic.

Nitta and Yamada used global ocean temperature data to discover that, since the late 1970s, surface temperatures were rising in the tropics, particularly in the eastern Pacific and the Indian Ocean. Their research suggests the changes in ocean temperature may have contributed to a change in climate patterns, affecting the Pacific-North American in particular.

Antonov investigated temperature changes in the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans within the depth range of 300 to 3000 meters over the years 1957–1981.

He found that, while the North Pacific did not change temperature in deeper areas, it cooled between 300 and 500m. On the other hand, over the same period, North Atlantic ocean temperatures increased in the 800 to 2500 meter layer.

This study investigates theoretically, the dependence of superlubricity on interlayer distance between graphene sheets and atomic defects on graphene for both commensurate and incommensurate configurations.

This earlier study by the current authors identifies and reports the potential of graphene layers in reducing friction and wear at the tribological interface of steel in air.

Martinez and colleagues compared the gut microbiome of individuals from Papua New Guinea and the United States. Individuals from Papua New Guinea had greater bacterial diversity and abundances, suggesting that industrialization may have an impact on the gut microbiome and, consequently, human health.

Goodrich and colleagues compared the gut microbiomes from individuals in the TwinsUK population and found that there is a correlation between the host genetics, metabolism, and gut microbiome.

Yatsunenko and colleagues sequenced the gut microbiome of three vastly different populations and found that there were pronounced differences between individuals from the United States than from Venezuela or Malawi. They suggest that the gut microbiome may be impacted by human development and Westernization.

Karlsson and colleagues characterized the fecal microbiota of European women and found that predictive tools for type-2 diabetes-associated markers could be useful if the age and location of the individual is accounted for.

Abbott et al. summarize why studying hybridization is important to evolutionary biologists, and how the genomic data now available can help scientists better understand the mechanisms of speciation and the particular genes responsible for maintaining hybrids as separate populations.

The authors indicate that homoploid hybrid speciation, while theoretically possible, has few strongly supported examples and there is little detail known about how it works. This helps us understand why this research paper is so important and interesting.

The first paper describing the algal protein, Channelrhodopsin-2, which was successfully cloned and expressed into mammalian neurons. The authors performed electrophysiological recordings of neurons expressing an opsin and measured the spiking activity.

In this study, Furshpan et al. were interested in identifying the neurotransmitter that is being released in response to different liquids or drugs. His group noted that neurons release acetylcholine, catecholamine or both in response to the drugs.

This study asked Chinese and U.K. citizens if an individual should be sacrificed to save many.

Chinese participants were less willing to sacrifice the lone individual, and were less likely to think that it was the more moral choice.

This paper found a general pattern across all its different studies—that people who decide that something is moral based on rules are considered more trustworthy.

This paper thus supports the idea that the methods used in "The social dilemma of autonomous vehicles" provide a representative view of the U.S. population, even though the respondents themselves might not entirely represent people in the U.S.

In this paper, Grant and Grant report the establishment of the Big Bird lineage and discuss the mechanisms of reproductive isolation that exist for its population.

This book summarizes the evidence for evolution gathered over the entire research project on Daphne Major that the Grants led. It concludes that natural selection occurred repeatedly during that time, and that competition for food in times of drought drove that evolution.

Nolte and Tautz discuss homoploid hybrid speciation and indicate that there is a need to understand the mechanisms involved in this type of speciation. They argue that the best way to examine these mechanisms is through observing hybrid populations that may or may not be on their way to forming new species, either in natural situations or in experiments.

Beth, Shelby, and I will be in the AAAS Lounge starting at 10am on Friday.

The authors of this work investigated and described the activity of the human ADAR1 and ADAR2 deaminases.

They showed that ADAR proteins had certain sequence preferences, including the nucleotides around the target and the position of the target relative to the RNA duplex ends. Additionally, they determined that ADARs did not edit all accessible adenosines. That implied these proteins possessed some specificity with unknown mechanism.

This paper demonstrated that ADAR deaminases preferentially edit adenosine bases that are mismatched with a cytidine.

The authors of the paper mutated the ADAR2 protein and, by screening of multiple mutants, identified the E488Q variant that could edit adenosine in all possible triplet targets.

A comprehensive review on research into ADAR proteins.

The authors of this study showed that the Cas13a protein was comparable to RNAi in its efficiency at knocking down RNA, but has superior specificity.

They also generated a catalytically dead Cas13a and demonstrated that it retained RNA-binding properties. This dCas13a was successfully used for RNA tracking.

Finally, the authors did not observe cleavage at sites surrounding the target (collateral cleavage) with Cas13a in mammalian cells. This was extremely important as it suggests the nuclease can be safely used to target specific sites without major adverse effects.

The authors of the paper presented a new application of the CRISPR-based tools as diagnostic devices. They created a technique called SHERLOCK (Specific High-Sensitivity Enzymatic Reporter UnLOCKing) which was able to detect very small amounts of disease-causing viruses and bacteria, as well as mutations in human DNA.

The same group of researchers that developed the first DNA base editor (7) improved the complex's specificity and expanded its ability to target.

They improved specificity by making the targeting window smaller, and expanded its ability to target different sequences by fusing the complex to Cas9 proteins that use different PAM sequences.

The authors of the study suggested an alternative strategy to genome editing that doesn't use DNA breaks and donor templates. They created a DNA base-editor complex composed of a mutant Cas9 and a cytidine deaminase APOBEC1. This complex was able to convert all C-G pairs into T-A within a narrow targeting window. However, it required additional modules to control the editing.

This group of scientists created a DNA base editor consisting of Cas9 and the cytidine deaminase PmCDA1. Similar to other work (7), this editor modified all cytidines in a target window and required an additional protein module for the control of editing.

First paper to establish the relationship between NPF in C. elegans and sensitivity to the effects of ethanol.

First paper to establish the relationship between NPF in fruit flies and sensitivity to the effects of ethanol.

A comprehensive analysis of the various genes in the Drosophila that pertain to the vast majority of—if not all—neuropeptides and their receptors.

This was one of the first studies to establish the courtship conditioning paradigm for controlling the sexual experience of male flies that is now commonly used in Drosophila research.

In this study, the authors identified factors that regulate the substance P in nerve ganglia. The authors reported that impulse activity and decentralization of neurons (or denervation) can affect positively or negatively the expression of substance P in the nerve ganglia.

This article discusses the evidence of neurotransmitter plasticity in sweat glands of rats. The authors show that the neurons change from a norepinephrine to acetylcholine during development. Though the change of neurotransmitter occurs in the system, it does not alter the uptake and storage of norepinephrine in these neurons.

In 2013, scientists traced the ancestry of Chinese native dogs using whole genome sequencing. They compared the DNA of four gray wolves (three from different parts of Russia, one Chinese), three native Chinese dogs (dogs present in China for a very long time), and three dogs considered very diverse from each other—a German Shepard, Belgian Malinois, and Tibetan Mastiff.

They suggest a Southeastern Asia origin for dogs, and domestication of Chinese indigenous dogs occurred 32,000 years ago.

Scientists studied the evolutionary history of free breeding dogs—that is, dogs without restricted, human-controlled breeding. They compared the genetic information of 200 free-breeding dogs from across Eurasia, with 51 ancient and modern breeds. They concluded that the origin for these dogs was East Asia and that they gradually moved West.

A large team of scientists from around the world sought to trace the origins of one of the world's primary language families, Indo-European languages. Through tracing language, in a way the scientists also trace the origins of European people. They studied DNA from 94 Europeans who lived 8000-3000 years ago. They found that many modern day Europeans can be traced back to the Yamnaya population, nomadic herders from Steppe, a region now know as Ukraine and Russia.

The authors suggest that dogs were domesticated 33,000 years ago in Southeast Asia.

Studying teeth and facial bones from wolf/doglike animals found buried in Israel (alongside human skeletons), it was estimated that these animals were 12,000-year-old dogs that had recently been domesticated.

A shorter face and smaller teeth are some of the most recognizable features of domestication. The author, Tamar Dayan, remains open to the possibility that there were several geographic origins of domestication and that small and large-sized wolves—from different populations—were domesticated separately, explaining why there were both large and small early dogs.

Scientists carried out detailed archaeological studies on bones from 49 small doglike animals from three separate sites in France. The fossils were, in fact, from dogs 11,500-15,00 years old, the same time-frame that much larger dogs existed in Russia, suggesting that there may have been two origins of domestication.

Archaeologists discovered seven dog/wolflike skulls at a site in the Czech Republic. By measuring and comparing the skulls and skulls fragments to those of wolves and recent dogs, scientists estimated that wolves were domesticated in the early upper Paleolithic era (~30,000 years ago)

This reference played an important role in this paper since it also focuses on different insect types (specifically butterflies) and their relationships with a variety of plants. It also serves as a source that elaborated on plant defense mechanisms and how it correlates to herbivores. Although this paper's main focus revolved around evolution, it still brought up many important observations that were relevant to this paper.

This reference is very important in understanding how biodiversity and the ecosystem, particularly the fauna, relate to each-other. It sets the base to understanding how it is possible that species of insects and animals can prefer to live or even need to live in a certain fauna/ecosystem.

This paper focuses on the member of the Mollusca phyla, Crassostrea gigas. It goes into depth on how the genome of the oyster reveals how it has been able heat chock protein 70 and apoptosis inhibitors contribute to the organisms ability to survive in very stressful environmental conditions. this contributes to the GIGA project because the genome had to have been coded and that can go towards the GIGA coalition.

"Whole-genome assembly is now used routinely to obtain high-quality draft sequence." This supports the main idea of which GIGA stands for. A database for easy access to high- quality sequences of a certain organism.

This paper speaks of how parasitisms has developed in worms. Scientist have been able to figure this information out using the genome of 3 different tapeworms. They also identify treatments to ride humans of these parasites. This aids with the GIGA project because uses the genetic code of invertebrates, which can be a part of the GIGA database.

This paper is on ring phylum Annelid. With the information in this study Animal body plan evolution can be more defined which can help researchers better understand the evolution of metazoans. It mentions on how other organisms who were classified under different phyla should actually fall under Annelid. Showing how this paper can help researchers narrow down the evolution of these creatures consisting of invertebrates.

This study focuses on the Placozoan Trichoplax genome in order to understand the organisms that fall under this category. It focuses in where they stand in categories of animals as one of the first emerging animals. It can be used to study how the first animals ever looked on this earth and their DNA can present a lot more information that can still be found out.

This has to do with how arthropods are more closely related to aquatic invertebrates than other terrestrial invertebrates. This shows how evolution of invertebrates were different then originally thought and with the help of data from this study other scientist can know this and use it for themselves.

This paper focuses on how to two taxa are actually very similar to one another. This all contributes to the database for flatworms and the taxa they pertain to.

This study focuses on how the Human Genome Project has lead humanity to leap into the future and gain a ton of knowledge. This is more of an example of how the GIGA project can be of use. It goes into detail of what we have learned since the HGP was completed. This is more of a reflection of the possibilities the GIGA project can have for marine invertebrate genome.

This is an article that is justifying the reasons for mapping a genome and how it can be useful in advancing knowledge, research, and technology.

Focuses on the genome size of an early branching phylum. This is all scarce information so this study is important into better understanding the entire phylum which is pretty wide spread. This is perfect example of what GIGA is trying to prevent. They want to create a global database of information of marine invertebrates especially due to the lack of information on these creatures.

This project is essentially a genomic mapping project of the the microbes that live within humans. Another example of how databases are useful, which supports the reasoning for creating the GIGA project.

This is a perfect example of how creating a database of a genome can enhance the spread of information and the use of certain standards and information in order go further into research of the tick genome. Shows how the GIGA initiative can be of use.

This is an older paper, published establishing a new phylum Cycliophora. This contributes to database on new discoveries on marine invertebrates. it foes into depth on the larva of the organism and what makes it different form other invertebrates.

This article focuses on the ENCODE project and goes to explain its functions and what it can lead to. It focuses on learning and understanding the functional regions of the human DNA, but it makes you think that if this can work for humans why can it not work for any other species? This shows incentive to the GIGA coalition and what it can mean for researchers in the marine invertebrate field.

This paper focuses on how Tunicates are the closest living relatives to vertebrates. This study can assist from en evolutionary standpoint to picture a transition from an invertebrate to vertebrate creatures. This pertains to paper at hand because it will contribute to the database for GIGA.

This article focuses on the evolution of body plans of invertebrates. So due to the nature of the paper it refers to a lot of invertebrates and focuses on their development. The GIGA project focuses on invertebrates

The name of this paper is called "Green Fluorescent Protein as a Marker for Gene Expression." The marine invertebrate mentioned is the Aequorea victoria. This will contribute to the papers database. Can help with focusing on proteins of jelly fish.

This article contains the genome of the nematode C. elegans. The main purpose of GIGA is to obtain and database the genomes and infomration of the genome for others to use so this paper is a perfect candidate that reach this criteria.

This article speaks on the ENCODE project. ENCODE is a mass collection of functional parts of DNA. It focuses on the do's and do not's of database creation. This can serve as a source of how the creators of GIGA can go about creating their database, and steps they should take to ensure its success.

"Schistosoma mansoni is responsible for the neglected tropical disease schistosomiasis that affects 210 million people in 76 countries." It contains the genome for this species and goes into depth the characteristics of the genetic code. for instance it says that it contains a large amount of introns. Also shows how the information gathered has led researchers to begin new ideas of possible treatments and regulations of the disease.

This paper proposes a project so it isn't necessarily a topic that many people have researched. Due to the nature of the paper, the resources and past works will consist of published works that describe the pros of creating a database and examples of the types of works that will contribute to the GIGA project.

A paper published in 2009, concluding that different exposure histories results in different levels of methylation.

A study in which the effect of the marine toxin Okadaic acid (OA) on certain genes that are related to cancer. In the study it was seen that there are alterations to the genes that could explain the relationship of OA to cancer.

Sunda has previously concluded that exposure to brevetoxins limit growth

Murell and Gibsons reviewed the effect of Red Tides on human health, particularly on the effect it has with DNA strands. It further supported their reasoning into investigate on Histone 2 dynamics during the toxic experiment.

Flewelling published a paper pinpointing areas in which saxitoxin (HABs) were found in food around the world. The Southeastern U.S was one of these areas in which saxitoxins were found. (DZ)

Also the paper talks about the effect of Karenia brevis's brevetoxins on food webs and the effects.

Dame's paper studies the interactions between the grazing of bivalves and their role in their respective environments (specifically, carrying capacity).

Cardozo focuses on the effects of the biotoxins released by the algae. From these effects the experiment is conducted upon what the toxins do on marine life organism in which the toxic effect is a natural defense mechanism.

A paper describing the dinoflagellate, karenia brevis. The paper explains the biotoxins released by it, how the biotoxins build up in shellfish, and what damage it does to other marine organisms.

Garwood focused on seed germination in tropical environments in Panama. He was looking to help determine primary selective factors that controlled the timing of germination, the significance of seed dormancy, and to identify any major seed germination syndromes. These are all related to the success of a plant population and help scientists better understand and map out conservation efforts for species diversity.

Galetti and Dirzo reviewed the anthropogenic drivers of defaunation. They determined that direct drivers include hunting, poaching, and the presence of invasive species. Indirect drivers of defaunation include deforestation and fragmentation as a result of human activities. Some of the many consequences of defaunation are reduced ecosystem services and evolutionary changes in populations.

Bond and his colleagues reviewed previous research in order to draw parallels between the effects of fire and herbivory on ecosystems. They concluded that, like herbivores, fires select for particular plant traits. For example, small herbaceous plants that require a lot of light for growth and seed establishment are more likely to be wiped out by fires. They also suggested that species that thrive under conditions of repeated defoliation would dominate communities where fires are likely to occur.

Alvarado and colleagues analyzed the reproductive success of Madagascar sclerophyllous tapia woodlands in relation to fire frequency. They determined that more frequent fires resulted in increased latency of reproductive phenological events (flowering and fruit production in particular). Additionally, frequent fires reduced the overall number of individuals producing flower and fruits. It should be noted that the fires mentioned in this study were related to human activities.