All the shrimps we studied are shallow water, fully marine forms with planktonic larvae.
Main subjects studied. Planktonic larva is significant in this study because larva shrimp would migrate to different regions of the Isthmus of Panama which may be a significant contributor to speciation events ~J.D.A. (+ JP)
followed by failure to interbreed when partial connection between the oceans was reestablished
Because of the long separation from one another, when some connection was established between either sides of the Isthmus, the shrimp pairs no longer had preferences to each other. Their extended sexual isolation probably had them adapted into altering their breeding behavior. ~J.D.A.
Even the least divergent pairs show substantial reproductive isolation
Species so closely related showed two differ clutches. Isolation could've been geographical, though nothing that could completely cut them off from each other since they are similar. If anything, this could infer that they could've been selective in mating, or aggressive in behavior to even mate, thus preventing creation of offspring between them. ~J.D.A
The null hypothesis, that isolation was simultaneous but rates of divergence are highly variable, is incompatible with the observed pattern because metabolic enzymes, mtDNA, and mate recognition share no mechanistic basis that would cause their divergence rates to be automatically associated.
Basically, the null is rejected because it contradicts the observed data. The null states that isolation occurred around at the same time, but the observed data shows divergence indicators such as metabolic enzymes, mtDNA, and mate recognition, all of which are not associated at a single mechanistic basis required for concurrent divergence. ~S.Z.
Hence, pairs P5-C5 and P6-C6 probably separated during the period of marked shoaling and environmental divergence preceding final closure.
P5-P6 pair were isolated from each other just before the final closing of the Panama seaway. This was due to shoaling of water and the environmental change that came with it. ~S.Z.
However, they do show some distributional differences that could affect sensitivity to changing conditions associated with gradual rise of the isthmus.
The physical location of the shrimp could effect the divergence associated with the gradual rise of isthmus. ~S.Z
Pacific members of the most divergent pairs are found deeper in the intertidal or are rare in habitats with heavy sedimentation (25) (Fig. 2). Thus, larval avoidance (26) of shoaling waters over the rising isthmus (6, 7) may have accelerated genetic isolation of these pairs.
The shrimp located closer to the sea floor had a slimmer chance of being pushed over the isthmus; therefore had a higher chance of isolation and divergence. ~S.Z.
Our data can also be used to estimate rates of divergence in reproductive compatibility. Even the least divergent pairs show substantial reproductive isolation
The less compatible they are the more they have diverged. ~S.Z.
1. E. Mayr, Animal Species and Evolution (Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1963).
This paper contains discussion of species concepts and their application, morphological species characters and sibling species, biological properties of species, isolating mechanisms, hybridization, the variation and genetics of populations, storage and protection of genetic variation, the unity of the genotype, geographic variation, the polytypic species of the taxonomist, the population structure of species, kinds of species, multiplication of species, geographic speciation, the genetics of speciation, the ecology of speciation, and species and transpecific evolution. All of which can contribute a great deal to the topic of this paper. ~S.Z.
D. S. Jordan, Am. Nat. 42, 73 (1908)
Supports that a physical barrier will increase the chances of divergence between species creating two or more sub-species decedents . ~S.Z.
Ecological, genetic, and geological data suggest that gene flow was disrupted for the remaining three pairs by environmental change several million years before the land barrier was complete.
Biological evidence supports an early and complex emergence of the Isthmus of Panama, Christine D. Bacon, PNAS, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1423853112
https://phys.org/news/2015-04-evidence-isthmus-panama-earlier-thought.html
According to phys.org, a newly published paper suggests that the Isthmus of Panama was formed earlier than conventionally believed. The article states that the isthmus was formed in a stop and go manner over 20 million years ago; meaning that migration of organisms could have also followed the same trend. If migration of animals between North and South America started earlier, then the minimum time required for strong reproductive isolation may actually be longer than 3.5 million years. (JP)
J. A. Coyne and H. A. Orr, Evolution 43, 362 (1989). W. R. Rice, ibid., p. 223.
The authors performed a similarly designed experiment to the one cited here which was done on drosophila (flies). This is to show that there are other species that have undergone staggered isolation through similar or even different events. (DV)
D. L. Swofford, PAUP: Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony, version 3.1; (Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign, IL, 1993).
The authors used this source as a bases to analyze the snapping shrimps mitochondrial DNA data and arrange the organisms in a phylogenetic tree as seen in figure 1. (DV)
J. H. Gillespie, The Causes of Molecular Evolution (Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1991).
The authors site this book as they are referring to the importance of having and maintaining genetic variation within a population. Also they might have utilized the mathematical theory of selection in a fluctuating environments, since the paper focuses on environmental and geographical changes affects on isolation. (DV)
a cessation of circulatory connections across the Panama seaway between 12.9 and 7.0 Ma as a result of altered current patterns, followed by return of a restricted shallow water connection that shoaled to a depth of less than 50 m
Genetic divergence was observed to have occured at different moments when oceanic changes like the haulting of certain currents across the Panama seaway and the shallowing of certain areas. (DV)
Genetic divergence before final closure may have been facilitated by changing oceanographic conditions
Genetic divergence was observed to have occured at different moments when oceanic changes like the haulting of certain currents across the Panama seaway and the shallowing of certain areas. (DV)
intolerant behavior
The intolerant behavior that has been observed in snapping shrimp known as snapping is the production of a water jet created by the larger claw that creates a loud "pop" sound. Although, it has been discovered that the actual threat in this behavior is the subsequent shock wave that comes after the water jet. (DV)
Read more in Shrimp shootouts end with a shock wave bang: http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/10/shrimp-shootouts-end-shock-wave-bang?utm_campaign=news_daily_2017-10-30&et_rid=17774509&et_cid=1632982
Geographic isolation is thought to permit divergence and speciation by disruption of gene flow
The physical barrier created by the Isthmus of Panama prevented the exchange of genes; therefore, allowing the organism to develop differently on wither side of the barrier or diverge. (SZ)
a phosphorylation-mimicking Thr205→Glu205 (T205E) tau variant coprecipitated significantly less with PSD-95 as compared with nonmutant and T205A (A, Ala) tau (Fig. 4C and fig. S21)
Phosphorylation at T205 inhibits complex formation.
T205 phosphorylation of tau is part of an Aβ toxicity–inhibiting response.
Phosphorylation at T205 on tau limits Amyloid beta toxicity.
p38γ regulated PSD-95/tau/Fyn complexes, likely at the level of PSD-95/tau interaction
From Fig. 3 the authors conclude that p38y reduces PSD-95/tau/Fyn complex formation by affecting PSD-95/Fyn interactions.
PTZ transiently increased PSD-95/tau/Fyn complex formation in p38γ+/+ animals; this effect was even more noticeable in p38γ−/− mice
p38y was shown to inhibit the formation of complexes, but the addition of PTZ lowers the protective function of p38y.
PSD-95/tau/Fyn interaction was reduced in transgenic mice with neuronal expression of p38γCA
The interactions that are required to form the complexes are reduced in mice with an active form of p38y, demonstrating that p38y may prevent complex formation.
PSD-95 copurified more tau and Fyn from p38γ−/− versus p38γ+/+ brains, and even more from APP23.p38γ−/− compared with APP23.p38γ+/+ and p38γ−/− brains
An immunoprecipitation for PSD-95 was ran. The proteins that were associated with PSD-95 complexes also precipitated due being in a complex with PSD-95. The results show that tau and Fyn were contributing more to the PSD-95 complexes when p38y was not present.
PSD-95/tau/Fyn interaction was enhanced in Alz17.p38γ−/− animals versus Alz17.p38γ+/+ mice
Results show that more PSD-95/tau/Fyn complexes were in the brains of p38𝛾-/- vs. p38𝛾+/+. This shows that PSD-95/tau/Fyn complexes are associated Amyloid-beta induced excitotoxicity
when compared to tau−/−.p38γ+/+mice, tau−/−.p38γ−/− animals showed similar protection from PTZ-induced seizures
p38y only protects agianst PTZ-induce siezures only when tau is present. A difference between p38y being present and p38 being absent is only seen in mice that have tau.
These data also showed that, compared with APP23 mice, APP23.p38γ−/− animals had aggravated memory deficits that persisted with aging
APP23.p38y+/+ mice survived longer and had performed better in water maze than APP23.p38y-/- mice. Also shown in the results is that APP23.p38y+/+.tau-/- vs. APP23.p38y-/-tau-/- mice, are statistically the same, suggesting that the protective effect of p38 comes from phosphorylating tau.
The exacerbating effects of p38γ loss on reduced survival, memory deficits, and neuronal network dysfunction of APP23 mice were virtually abolished in APP23.p38γ−/−.tau−/− mice
The APP23 deficits improved when tau was not present in mice.
p38γ−/− mice showed no deficits and had normal motor function
The lack of p38y kinase did not negatively affect the movement and motor function of the mice.
Aβ pathology was comparable in the brains of APP23.p38γ−/− and APP23.p38γ+/+ mice (fig. S6), but p38γ deletion aggravated premature mortality and memory deficits of APP23 mice
APP23 mice that had p38y and did not have p38y displayed similar traits, but the deficits in mice that did not possess p38y kinase were worse.
Surprisingly, only p38γ depletion (p38γ−/−), but not systemic p38β, p38δ, or neuronal p38α (p38αΔneu) knockout, changed PTZ-induced seizures
The only knockout mouse that displayed a change associated with PTZ-seizures was p38y. Because p38y was the only one that influenced the results, it is the focus of all the experiments.
rescued memory deficits and network aberrations
Promising Alzheimer’s ‘drug’ halts memory loss (https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/06/130626184019.htm) I found this article interesting because it talked about p38 alpha. At the beginning of the article by Arne Ittner (2017) mice with depletion of p38 alpha, beta, gamma, and delta were all tested. Only p38 gamma depletion had an effect on PTZ seizures, so they tested p38𝛾 and its effect on mice with AD. This article from Northwestern University focuses on how p38 alpha becomes overactive in AD patients. Overactive p38 alpha leads to damage in the synapses by impairing glial cells protective abilities, disrupts the signal between neurons, and releases toxic molecules that can lead to more damage.
revealing an Aβ toxicity–limiting role of p38γ in AD
Discovery opens door to new Alzheimer’s treatments (https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/11/161117151205.htm) This article connected with our paper in many ways. Alzheimer’s patient have two things, protein plaques made from amyloid-beta, and tau tangles that are phosphorylated by the kinase. When tau is phosphorylated, it forms tangles. So we thought. What the study found is that when tau is initially phosphorylated, it is for protection. They focused on a protein kinase, p38𝛾, and found that is assists in phosphorylating tau and interferes with the amyloid-beta toxicity. When removed, Alzheimer's progresses. When reintroduced, it was therapeutic and helped halt Alzheimer’s progression.
Finally, we found that tau-dependent Aβ toxicity was modulated by site-specific tau phosphorylation, which inhibited postsynaptic PSD-95/tau/Fyn complexes, revealing an Aβ toxicity–limiting role of p38γ in AD that is distinct and opposite to the effects of p38α and p38β (11, 13, 14).
The authors state, contrary to popular belief, that tau can play a protective role in limiting amyloid beta toxicity by interacting with p38γ. By phosphorylating specific sites tau can increase neuron survival and improve memory loss.
PTZ-induced seizures are reduced in tau−/− mice (8, 9). Adeno-associated virus (AAV)–mediated expression of WT and T205A neurons, but not T205E tau or green fluorescent protein (GFP), in the forebrains of tau−/− mice enhanced PTZ-induced seizures (Fig. 4D and fig. S25).
The data shows that the tau-/-.AAV tauWT and tau-/-.AAV tauT205A were the most susceptible to seizures and had the most severe seizures out of the four genotypes.
Hence, phosphorylation of tau at T205 should similarly mitigate neurotoxicity. Aβ caused cell death in WT and T205A neurons but significantly less in T205E tau-expressing neurons (fig. S23). Similarly, neurons expressing p38γ and, more so, p38γCA were significantly more resistant to Aβ-induced cell death than controls (fig. S24).
The results from previous experiments showed that neurons survived at higher rates when they had T205E and p38γ.
Pan-p38 inhibition stopped p38γ/p38γCA-induced disruption of PSD-95/tau/Fyn complexes
If p38y is completely inhibited, the complexes are stable.
Hence, p38γ regulated PSD-95/tau/Fyn complexes via phosphorylating tau at T205.
The results of this experiment showed that p38γ helped to disrupt the PSD-95/tau/Fyn complexes through phosphorylation of T205.
Increasing p38γ levels compromised PSD-95/tau/Fyn interaction in cells, and expression of a constitutively active p38γ variant (p38γCA) completely abolished this interaction
p38y was shown to prevent the interactions required to form the complexes associated.
Similarly, pT205 was markedly reduced in APP23.p38γ−/− animals compared with APP23.p38γ+/+ mice (Fig. 4B)
The results of the previous experiment showed that APP23p38𝛾-/- mice had decreased T205 phosphorylation compared to the APP23p38𝛾+/+, which had T205 phosphorylation.
no PSD-95/tau/Fyn complexes were isolated from tau−/− and tau−/−.p38γ−/− brains
Demonstrates that the complexes will not form if unless tau is present.
In summary, the levels of active p38γ kinase and tau phosphorylation at T205 determined susceptibility to excitotoxicity and Aβ toxicity.
the effects of p38γ on excitotoxicity and Aβ toxicity were tau-dependent.
The protective qualities of p38y are dependent on tau being present. If tau is not present, amyloid-beta toxicity effects the cells the same, even if p38y is present.
increasing tau levels in p38γ−/− mice [brought about by crossing with nonmutant tau-expressing Alz17 mice (23)] significantly enhanced PTZ-induced seizures in Alz17.p38γ−/− mice
Mice that had higher levels of tau were more susceptible to seizures.
In summary, p38γ depletion exacerbated excitotoxicity, neuronal circuit synchronicity, mortality, and memory deficits in APP23 mice, without changes in Aβ pathology.
Overall, every deficit associated with APP23 was made worse when p38y was not present.
Electroencephalography showed enhanced spontaneous epileptiform activity and interictal hypersynchronous discharges in APP23.p38γ−/− compared with APP23.p38γ+/+ mice
From the results, the researchers can infer that the presence of p38𝛾 kinase has a protective ability that lessens the amount of seizure trains that occur due to Aβ density bodies
Compared with APP23.p38γ+/+ mice, APP23.p38γ−/− animals had increased sensitivity to PTZ-induced seizures
From the results conducted in the experiment, specifically the Fig. 1 G-J, mice that did not possess p38y were more sensitive to seizures
only p38γ localized to postsynapses and limited excitotoxicity.
The only knockout mouse that was shown to cause a change in PTZ-induced seizures was p38𝛾. p38𝛾 was also the only kinase that was shown to localize in postsynapses between neurons.
EGLN1 was identified by both,
After running the XP-EHH and iHS testing EGLN1 was determined to be a gene that was undergoing local positive selection. Meaning that the gene was currently providing an adaptive advantage to the person who had it, and was increasing in occurrence in that population.
Tibetans exhibit a distinct suite of
https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/02/0224_040225_evolution.html Adaptations result in changed phenotype. As the Tibetan highlanders adapted to their high altitude environment, they underwent changes to their physiology as to better acclimate to their environment.
It is plausible that the diminished Hb levels found in Tibetans offset complications associated with sustained high Hb levels (for instance, hyperviscosity) seen in non-Tibetans exposed to high-altitude conditions (10, 11). Alternatively, decreased Hb levels could be a side effect of other phenotypes that are the actual targets of natural selection.
Overall, the decreased hemoglobin levels seen in the Tibetan highlanders may be the result of variants in PPARA and EGLN1 haplotypes. However, the decreased hemoglobin levels could a side effect of a currently unknown phenotype, which may be the actual target of natural selection.
J. E. K. Byrnes, L. Gamfeldt, F. Isbell, J. S. Lefcheck, J. N. Griffin, A. Hector, B. J. Cardinale, D. U. Hooper, L. E. Dee, J. E. Duffy, Investigating the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem multifunctionality: Challenges and solutions. Methods Ecol. Evol. 5, 111–124 (2014).
Byrne's review focuses on the impacts of assemblage diversity on ecosystem functions.
This study acknowledges the impact of diversity on resource utilization and thus productivity, however the focus is on the characterization of multi-functionality.
C. Fissore, J. Espeleta, E. A. Nater, S. E. Hobbie, P. B. Reich, Limited potential for terrestrial carbon sequestration to offset fossil-fuel emissions in the upper midwestern US. Front. Ecol. Environ. 8, 409–413 (2010).
Fissore's review argues that carbon sequester by forests in the mid-west can not off set fossil fuel based carbon dioxide emissions. The study compares hypothetical scenarios necessary to offset significant proportions of the carbon dioxide emissions by converting landscapes into carbon sequestering species.
R. F. Follett, Soil management concepts and carbon sequestration in cropland soils. Soil Tillage Res. 61, 77–92 (2001).
Follett discusses the role organic soils play in the movement of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the soil. This review characterizes terrestrial soils as carbon sinks which is important for crop management.
P. B. Reich, D. Tilman, S. Naeem, D. S. Ellsworth, J. Knops, J. Craine, D. Wedin, J. Trost, Species and functional group diversity independently influence biomass accumulation and its response to CO2 and N. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 10101–10106 (2004).
Reich compares the role of CO2 and N on species richness and functional group diversity.
This study compares the roles of functional group diversity and species richness has on biomass accumulation in an elevated carbon dioxide and nitrogen environment.
R. Sedjo, B. Sohngen, Carbon sequestration in forests and soils, in Annual Review of Resource Economics, G. C. Rausser, Ed. (Annual Reviews, Palo Alto, 2012), vol. 4, pp. 126–143
Sejo discusses the role species richness plays in effecting economic value.
This review puts emphasis on the role of biodiversity on marginal economic value represented as carbon storage for conservation efforts.
D. A. Fornara, D. Tilman, Plant functional composition influences rates of soil carbon and nitrogen accumulation. J. Ecol. 96, 314–322 (2008).
Fornara reviews the mechanisms that control carbon and nitrogen accumulation in soils.
The review covers the relationships between biodiversity and carbon and nitrogen accumulation in soils, with an emphasis on the c3 and c4 grasses.
T. L. Daniels, Integrating forest carbon sequestration into a cap-and-trade program to reduce net CO2 emissions. J. Am. Plann. Assoc. 76, 463–475 (2010).
Daniels reviews the role forests play in reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. His focus however is primarily advocating for including carbon sequester by forests into management plans or a cap-and-trade program.
References and Notes
The economic value of grassland species for carbon storage is one of the first papers to monetarily quantify the gain or loss of a species from an ecosystem. Even slight additions (as little as one additional species) to the current U.S. Department of Agriculture's Conservation Reserve program could save hundreds of millions of dollars.
Read more in Michigan News: http://ns.umich.edu/new/releases/24732-diversity-dividends-the-economic-value-of-grassland-species-for-carbon-storage
SC
A. D. Barnosky, N. Matzke, S. Tomiya, G. O. U. Wogan, B. Swartz, T. B. Quental, C. Marshall, J. L. McGuire, E. L. Lindsey, K. C. Maguire, B. Mersey, E. A. Ferrer, Has the Earth's sixth mass extinction already arrived? Nature 471, 51–57 (2011).
Barnosky discusses the events known as mass extinctions and compares the rates of extinction for these events to modern rates of extinction. PB
References and Notes
Grasslands with greater biodiversity were found to feature greater biomass than grasslands with fewer species diversity.
Read more in ScienceDaily: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/04/170419091536.htm
SC
References and Notes
This article by Hungate et. al applies its findings to the Conservation Reserve Program, attempting to estimate species richness of CRP. This article ( D. L. Carter, J. M. Blair, Recovery of native plant community characteristics on a chronosequence of restored prairies seeded into pastures in West-Central Iowa. Restor. Ecol. 20, 170–179 (2012). ) is cited, yet this cited paper specifically does not use CRP grasslands, suggesting an error on the part of Hungate et. al.
Read more at PrarieBotanist: https://prairiebotanist.com/2017/04/11/a-brief-comment-on-the-economic-value-of-grassland-species-for-carbon-storage/
SC
Increasing species richness from 1 to 10 had twice the economic value of increasing species richness from 1 to 2.
Each additional degree of species richness is worth less than the previous degree of richness in terms of economic value. Therefore, the economic value does not increase in direct proportion with the species richness, although they are correlated.
SC
B. J. Cardinale, K. L. Matulich, D. U. Hooper, J. E. Byrnes, E. Duffy, L. Gamfeldt, P. Balvanera, M. I. O'Connor, A. Gonzalez, The functional role of producer diversity in ecosystems. Am. J. Bot. 98, 572–592 (2011).
Cardinale reviews the roles of primary producer biodiversity with respect to ecological processes critical to the functionality and health of terrestrial and marine ecosystems. PB
predicted secondary structure
Villordo and peers (2015) studied the cycle of how mosquito viruses could quickly adapt to different human host environments. The changes in RNA structures were examined in the dengue virus during host adaptation. The researchers discovered that the 3’UTR of RNA is modified during host adaptation, such as duplicating the structure to accommodate for beneficial mutations.
Musashi-1
Sakakibara and peers studied the Musashi-1 protein within a mouse and associated the protein with neural development. Musashi-1 was found to be highly enriched within the central nervous system of mammalian cells, regulate stem cell translation, and can differentiate into neurons through regulation.
interferes specifically with fetal brain development
Li and others (2016) hypothesized that ZIKV can infect not only developing neuronal stem cells, but also adult brain cells. The results seen were that adults can be affected by the ZIKV. The adult would need to be triply deficient in the regulatory factor for interferon to allow the virus to take hold of the stem cells in the brain.
interferes specifically with fetal brain development
Li and others (2016) hypothesized that ZIKV can infect not only developing neuronal stem cells, but also adult brain cells. The results seen were that adults can be affected by the ZIKV. The adult would need to be triply deficient in the regulatory factor for interferon to allow the virus to take hold of the stem cells in the brain.
effect on fetal neurodevelopment
Cugola et al., (2016) found that ZIKV infects fetuses, causes intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), and causes signs of microcephaly in mice. Data demonstrated that the infection of ZIKV into human brain organoids reduced proliferation and disrupted cortical layers. This indicates that ZIKV is able to cross the placenta and cause microcephaly by inducing apoptosis in cortical progenitor cells.
Statics, respect matter generally, in a state of rest, and include Hydrostatics, or the Laws of fluids particularly, at rest or in equilibrio Dynamics, used as a general term include Dynamics proper, or the Laws of solids in Motion and Hydrodynamics, or Hydraulics, those of fluids in Motion Pneumatics teach the theory of air, its Weight, Motion, condensation, rarifaction &c Acoustics or Phonics, the theory of sound Optics the Laws of Light & vision Physics or Physiology in a general sense, mean the doctrine of the Physical objects of our senses
It is interesting to note that all these subjects, so succinctly explained here, are all under the umbrella term "Physics" now. During Jefferson's time, there probably wasn't a standard of learning to follow, so he had to list out the specifics here. We've come far in that now mentioning to physics to someone with some schooling will mean them considering some of these things instead of just "the doctrine of Physical objects of our senses."
This degree of medical information is such as the mass of scientific students would wish to possess, as enabling them, in their course thro life, to estimate with satisfaction the extent & limits of the aid to human life & health, which they may understandingly expect from that art: and it constitutes such a foundation for those intended for the profession, that the finishing course of practice at the bedsides of the sick, and at the operations of surgery in a hospital, can neither be long nor expensive.
The authors of the Rockfish Gap Report recognized the need to create curriculum that focused on the moral/ethical implications of medical practice. The fact that the "extent & limits" of the practice is emphasized here demonstrates that there is more to care than simply repairing the body on an anatomical level, thus prompting the need for a more compassionate kind of care. The initial purpose of UVA's medical curriculum was to create a more compassionate pool of health-providers, and this vision persists today in programs like the nursing school's Compassionate Care initiative. This fully aligns with Jefferson's belief that students should focus on their area of study from a micro and macro level, synthesizing knowledge of the hard sciences with philosophical and ethical inquiry.
John Robinson of Rockbridge County, has executed a deed to the President & Directors of the Literary fund, to take effect at his death for the following tracts of Land, to wit
The development of the University was an incredible feat that I am sure many wanted to be a part of. John Robinson likely hoped to do some good in death by having his final legacy be contributing his land and slaves for the university's use. Though Lexington was not chosen as the site for the University, Robinson's willingness to donate the wealth he accumulated throughout his lifetime to UVA demonstrates the human tendency to be a part of a cause greater than who they are individually, thus in a sense defying death.
social media can be an extremely powerful tool that we can exploit to bring back the patriarchy.
media is a tool to control people
Baking and Pastry Arts A.A.S.
Baking and Pastry Arts A.A.S.
mimicking site-specific tau phosphorylation alleviated Aβ-induced neuronal death and offered protection from excitotoxicity.
The site that is phosphorylated by p38y was found to be important for reducing effects of AD. Demonstrates that the function of p38y is important, and the mere presence of p38y in the cell is not protective, it has to be functional.
depletion of p38γ exacerbated neuronal circuit aberrations, cognitive deficits, and premature lethality in a mouse model of AD, whereas increasing the activity of p38γ abolished these deficits
The research found that the presence of p38y reduced the effects of AD in the mouse model.
Indeed, bivalve molluscs constitute emerging models in epigenetics, as illustrated by recent studies examining the role of DNA methylation in the Pacific oyster
Earlier in the year, researchers were using mollusks to derive a non addicting painkiller in the hopes of solving the U.S. opioid epidemic. Read more at salon: https://www.salon.com/2017/03/04/a-little-mollusk-may-lead-to-a-big-discovery-in-helping-solve-the-u-s-opioid-epidemic/ EM
However, the role of these proteins goes beyond structure, participating in the dynamic regulation of chromatin during transcription, replication, and repair, among other DNA metabolic processes
Histone functions can go as far as being key gene silencers in normal embryo development. Read more in ScienceDaily: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/08/170830202141.htm EM
Assemblages of insect herbivores were dissimilar between populations of ecotypes from different habitats, as well as from the same habitat 100 km distant.
In Africa, there is a food crisis leaving millions of people without corn, a very important crop for Africa. The reason for these crops not being edible is that a certain species of worm invaded a field of corn and rapidly spread to neighboring farms, killing millions of corn crops leaving thousands hungry. This proves the point how insects differ from each-other depending on what type of plants are around, since this worm is always flocking to this one crop.
Link:A table showing variation in herbivore communities and relative abundance of leaf secondary metabolites
-Otniel Gonzalez
Leading supplier of industrial mixers, blenders and agitator systems for industrial process and chemical markets worldwide.
it in-creases hyperexcitability in Abprecursor protein(APP) transgenic mice
Side effects of phosphorylation
n-hibition of p38aand p38bimproves Ab-induced
inhibition may have a short term positive effect
Accordingly, the depletion of tau prevents Abtoxicity in AD models (7–9). Ab-induced neuronalnetwork and synaptic dysfunction is associatedwith aberrant glutamatergic synaptic transmis-sion (10).N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)–typeglutamatergic receptors (NRs) drive glutamate-induced neuronal excitotoxicity (11)andmediateAbtoxicity by downstream responses that pro-mote neuronal dysfunction (12
The steps that tau tangles interfere with in the transmittance of signals in the brain.
Aberrant tau phosphorylation is the firststep in a cascade leading to its deposition and tocognitive dysfunction (4,5). Abis thought to trig-ger toxic events, including tau phosphorylation
steps and relevance to Alzheimer's disea
first, the sex-determining proteins studied in the present work evolve at constant rates, as suggested by global molecular clock tests (Table 1).
From Table 1, the following sex-determining proteins display InL, InL(clock), and the p-value. These factors display the final calculations. From what the author first concluded, the InL(clock) values show that there is in fact a constant rate with which the proteins evolve. It is tested by the likelihood ratio tests based off the models of evolution defined. -Melanie
phosphorus (P) additions
The levels of phosphorus in Lake Coeur d’Alene have doubled since the 1990's. This worries authorities about the potential growth in algae and increase in heavy metals in the lake.
Read more in The Spokesman-Review: http://www.spokesman.com/stories/2017/nov/15/phosphorus-pollution-flowing-into-lake-coeur-dalen/
stimulated at nutrient concentrations that are now common across human-disturbed landscapes
A city releases water contaminated by agriculture which will have an adverse effect on local ecosystems.
Read more in Lawrence-Journal World: http://www2.ljworld.com/news/2017/nov/15/short-notice-citys-release-nitrogen-contaminated-w/
agricultural streams
Poultry producer is fined by $1.4 million for polluting a local stream.
Read more in WJCT: http://news.wjct.org/post/live-oak-poultry-producer-environmental-groups-reach-deal-over-suwannee-river-pollution
nutrient pollution
William & Mary’s Virginia Institute of Marine Science are studying oysters to see if they could be used to reduce nitrogen levels.
Read more in the Williamsburg Yorktown Daily: https://wydaily.com/2017/11/05/study-suggests-oysters-offer-hot-spot-for-reducing-nutrient-pollution-tek/
Nutrient pollution
Nutient pollution is affecting the production of fisheries in the ocean by creating dead zones in the ocean where there are low levels of oxygen.
Read more in the Iowa Public Radio: http://iowapublicradio.org/post/farmers-sea-say-livelihood-dying-midwest-ag-pollution#stream/0
Algal production increases
An increase on nutrients in nearby river has led to an increase in the levels of algae in these rivers, some of these which are toxic to people.
Read more in nwi.com: http://www.nwitimes.com/business/toxic-algae-once-a-nuisance-now-a-severe-nationwide-threat/article_2b1decfa-43c9-5d80-bf64-173e51a95248.html
Long-term nutrient enrichment decouples predator and prey production
This article discusses the effect the addition of nutrients has on an aquatic ecosystem. Originally the author hypothesized an increase of energy transfer from prey to predators because of the increase of nutrients. However, this did not occur because the increase in nutrient led to an increase of predator resistant prey.
Stream nutrient enrichment has a greater effect on coarse than on fine benthic organic matter
This article discusses how an increase in nutrients affects the levels of coarse and fine organic litter. It was observed that there were higher levels of fine organic material which led to an increase in bacteria. However, in the stream with no nutrients added to it, there was an increase in both fungal and bacterial communities.
Nutrient enrichment alters storage and fluxes of detritus in a headwater stream ecosystem
This article demonstrates how the addition of nitrogen and phosphorus led to an increase in the production of fine organic compound by more than 300%. The article also mentions that this increase in fine organic compound will have an effect on the entire ecosystem in that area in the long term.
Multiple trophic levels of a forest stream linked to terrestrial litter inputs
This article discusses the importance of terrestrial litter on an aquatic ecosystem. It was observed that organisms that lived in the stream that was being tested were affected the most by the absence of litter and the same effects could be observed throughout the entire ecosystem. However, terrestrial fauna was not affected meaning that it got its carbon from another source.
Lakes and reservoirs as regulators of carbon cycling and climate.
This article mentions the that the rate at which inland water sources release carbon dioxide is equivalent to the rate at which carbon is absorbed by the ocean. Methane is also being release in higher levels from lakes which are beginning to thaw because of increasing temperatures from global warming.
Continental-scale effects of nutrient pollution on stream ecosystem functioning
This experiment was a pan-European research of more than 100 streams in multiple European countries. It helped determine the importance of litter breakdown and states that countries should begin to consider the importance of regulating nutrient levels in aquatic ecosystems.
Ecosystem metabolism and turnover of organic carbon along a blackwater river continuum
This article discusses the respiration rate of an aquatic ecosystem and uses it to determine patterns of activity found within a river during different seasons. It was observed that there were higher levels of respiration when there were was more organic carbon in the river.
Nutrient co-limitation of primary producer communities
This article focuses on how nutrients affect the growth of primary producers. The factors that were observed to have the highest effects on the ecosystems were nitrogen and phosphorus levels.
Whole-system nutrient enrichment increases secondary production in a detritus-based ecosystem
This article discusses how the addition of nutrients in an aquatic ecosystem affects secondary production. It was noted that there was an increase in secondary consumers most likely caused because of an increase in prey. There was also an increase of secondary consumer predators. It is mentioned that the increase of nutrients in the two years the survey was done resulted in positive effects for the secondary consumers, however, this might eventually change as the carbon levels in the ecosystem begin to decline because of the higher nutrient levels.
Human influences on nitrogen removal in lakes
This article discusses how human practices have led to a increase of nitrogen levels in lakes. The article also mentions that an increase of phosphorus in lakes resulted in the extraction of higher levels of nitrogen. However, the author also states that laws pertaining to the concentration of phosphorus in aquatic habitats should not be removed or relaxed because phosphorus can also have a negative effect on an ecosystem if found in high concentrations.
Management of nutrient effects on both of these pathways would positively affect riverine health.
The purpose of these experiments were to test the effects of nutrients on terrestrial carbon loss that ultimately leads to a change in ecosystems.
Learning the effects and ideal ratios of nitrogen to phosphorus for ecosystems will lead to better policies to protect them.
Litter quantity in the streambed was predicted to be 2.8 times and 7.7 times higher in reference versus nutrient-enriched streams after 6 and 12 months,
In the experiment, it was found that the addition of nutrients encouraged terrestrial organic carbon loss.
This was tested by observing the litterbags of the experimental streams and comparing the data to the litterbags of the control stream.
Since a large amount of mass was lost in the stream with nutrient additions, this gives some evidence that too many nutrients off-balances organic carbon levels.
Reach-scale outputs of C increased as fine POC export, as well as respiration (15).
Fine POC export represents the movement of broken down carbon along the stream. Finer particles move faster and further down a stream as biological factors such as microbes and fungi decomposing the terrestrial organic carbon.
They may limit terrestrial C loss as CO2 and maintain downstream C export, but contribute to depletion of local C resources (22, 23).
Detrivores have a different method of carbon depletion from streams. finer particulate organic carbon travels faster and further away from an area, deleting the area of carbon sources.
Invertebrates may leave the system if there are no food sources and alter the food chain.
However, roughly similar-sized effects of N and P on loss rates are strong evidence of co-limitation (Fig. 2 and table S3).
Both nitrogen and phosphorus are contributing factors to changes in terrestrial carbon loss.
Within the ecosystem, different organisms require different ratios of nutrients to react and convert terrestrial carbon to carbon dioxide.
If you recall your LMS patent infringement history, then you'll remember that roles and permissions were exactly the thing that Blackboard sued D2L over.
(At the time, Stephen Downes mocked me for thinking that this was an important aspect of LMS design to consider.)
An interesting case where Stephen’s tone might have drowned a useful discussion. FWIW, flexible roles and permissions are among the key things in my own personal “spec list” for a tool to use with learners, but it’s rarely possible to have that flexibility without also getting a very messy administration. This is actually one of the reasons people like WordPress.
The high levels of genetic differentiation detected within C. jimenezii raise questions whether these two populations can be treated as different varieties/subspecies within this taxon or if indeed they may represent two different species.
In this study, the researchers found some questions as to whether the two species of C. jimenezii could be grouped with the same taxa.
Upon meeting with the author, it was stated that the molecular tools used, found a large amount of differentiation. This was not what the authors hoped and in turn was concluded that they were to remain in separate taxa.
RA
Therefore we recommend not translocating material between these two populations for genetic conservation or ecological restoration programs until the taxonomy of this species within Coccothrinax is further studied.
Genetic conservation of this population is important due to the few individuals left in Haiti and the Dominican Republic.
Upon meeting with the author, the difficulty of finding the purebred species was discussed as were the methods.
RA
The taxonomic uncertainties between the two populations of C. jimenezii have important implications for reintroduction programs. These two sites of C. jimenezii represent two clear management units for conservation, and the population genetic data suggest that we cannot rule out that they are two distinct taxa.
The authors concluded based off of the molecular data, that the two species of C. jimenezii could not be identified as two different taxa.
RA
We have not been able to find data regarding the environmental history in these two populations since the 15th century. However, there is agreement among conservation biologists that since the arrival of the Europeans to this island there has been habitat fragmentation and deforestation linked to rapid expansion of urban and rural activities (Sambrook et al., 1999; Alscher, 2011; Foxx, 2012). Palms have long-life cycles; therefore, the detrimental consequences of genetic drift on genetic diversity can take a long period of time to manifest because of their long generation time and the presence of overlapping cohorts (Duminil et al., 2009).
Since the extinction of C. jimenezii is of primary concern, the authors grab resources from other works to help solidify this concept. It is clear that the conservation of this species is vital to this study.
RA
Intracontinental strike-slip faults, associated magmatism, mineral systems and mantle dynamics: examples from NW China and Altay-Sayan (Siberia)
segundo archivo
however, did not take into account thepotential influence of the magmato-tectonic interactions on thefault growth, whereas all the faults are located in a highly volcaniccontext. Indeed, the influence of magma bodies on the fault activityhas been observed both at short and long time scales in Afar, and inother extensional regions (Mastin and Pollard, 1988; Rubin andPollard, 1988; Rubin, 1992; Gudmundsson, 2003; Gudmundssonand Loetveit, 2005; Doubre et al., 2007; Doubre and Peltzer,2007; Calais et al., 2008; Biggs et al., 2009; Medynski et al., 2013,2016).
cita 1
Min, K.-T. and Benzer, S. (1997). Wolbachia, normally a symbiont of Drosophila, can be virulent, causing degeneration and early death. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94, 10792-10796.
Camacho, Oliva, and Serbus explain the relevance of parasitic Wolbachia being detrimental to the growth and oocyte growth of the Drosophila.
GG
Teixeira, L., Ferreira, A. and Ashburner, M. (2008). The bacterial symbiont Wolbachia induces resistance to RNA viral infections in Drosophila melanogaster. PLoS Biol. 6, e2.
The information presented in this paper explores how the information presented by Camacho, Oliva, and Serbus is relevant. It states that according to the endosymbitic behavior of Wolbachia, the susceptibility of the host organism to viral RNA infections may be diminished due to the resistance of Wolbachia to those viral RNA infections.
GG
Ponton, F., Wilson, K., Holmes, A., Raubenheimer, D., Robinson, K. L. and Simpson, S. J. (2015). Macronutrients mediate the functional relationship between Drosophila and Wolbachia. Proc. Biol. Sci. 282, 20142029.
Camacho, Oliva, and Serbus demonstrate how macronutrients mediate the functional relationship between Drosophila and Wolbachia, by using sucrose and its dietary variants to create an environment allowing the Drosophila to thrive and the Wolbachia to proliferate within the Drosophila.
GG
Serbus, L. R., White, P. M., Silva, J. P., Rabe, A., Teixeira, L., Albertson, R. and Sullivan, W. (2015). The impact of host diet on Wolbachia titer in Drosophila. PLoS Pathog. 11, e1004777.
Camacho, Oliva, and Serbus used a previously published article from Serbus to delve into the specifics of how the host diet impacts Wolbachia titer.
GG
Mouton, L., Henri, H., Charif, D., Bouletreau, M. and Vavre, F. (2007). Interaction between host genotype and environmental conditions affects bacterial density in Wolbachia symbiosis. Biol. Lett. 3, 210-213. Musselman, L. P., Fink, J. L., Narzinski, K., Ramachandran, P. V., Hathiramani, S. S., Cagan, R. L. and Baranski, T. J. (2011). A high-sugar diet produces obesity and insulin resistance in wild-type Drosophila. Dis. Model. Mech. 4, 842-849.
Camacho, Oliva, and Serbus further explored how the Wolbachia titer increased depending on the type of sugar product fed to the Drosophila.
GG
Wang, M. and Wang, C. (1993). Characterization of glucose transport system in Drosophila Kc cells. FEBS Lett. 317,241-244.
Camacho, Oliva, and Serbus used the knowledge presented in this article to maximize the efficacy of the consumption of the varied glucose by Drosophila.
GG
Dale, C. and Moran, N. A. (2006). Molecular interactions between bacterial symbionts and their hosts. Cell 126, 453-465
While Camacho, Oliva, and Serbus specified which interactions between bacterial symbionts and their hosts. The mechanism by which this interaction occurs is still unclear.
GG
Christensen, S., Pérez Dulzaides, R., Hedrick, V. E., Momtaz, A. J. M. Z., Nakayasu, E. S., Paul, L. N. and Serbus, L. R. (2016). Wolbachia endosymbionts modify Drosophila ovary protein levels in a context-dependent manner. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 82, 5354-5363
Camacho, Oliva, and Serbus further explore a topic primarily researched by Serbus on how Drosophilaovaries are modified by Wolbachia.
GG
Bordenstein, S. R. and Bordenstein, S. R. (2011). Temperature affects the tripartite interactions between bacteriophage WO, Wolbachia, and cytoplasmic incompatibility. PLoS ONE 6, e29106. Boyle, L., O'Neill, S. L., Robertson, H. M. and Karr, T. L. (1993). Interspecific and intraspecific horizontal transfer of Wolbachia in Drosophila. Science 260, 1796-1799.
Camacho, Oliva, and Serbus review the contributions made by authors regarding the transfer and survival/ compatibility of Wolbachia in various environments.
Camacho, Oliva, and Serbus further investigate the effects of Wolbachia on Drosophila in a high or low sucrose concentrated environment.
GG
Caragata, E. P., Rancès, E., Hedges, L. M., Gofton, A. W., Johnson, K. N., O'Neill, S. L. and McGraw, E. A. (2013).Dietary cholesterol modulates pathogen blocking by Wolbachia. PLoS Pathog. 9, e1003459.
Camacho, Oliva, and Serbus reviewed articles that explored how cholesterol affects Wolbachia, while further questioning how this may improve the overall pathogenic blocking capabilities of their host.
GG
Editor's Introduction
Depending on which sugars are fed to Drosophila, the Wolbachia oocytes may change in size and concentration. The wMel Wolbachia used in this experiment shares a parasitic relationship with the Drosophila.
What does this mean for the growth of Drosophila fed these sweet tastants? What would the effects of an increased Wolbachia titer in the Drosophila be? How does this occur? What are the longterm effects of the Wolbachia invasion in the Drosophila.
Dietary saccharides and sweet tastants have differential effects on colonization of Drosophila oocytes by Wolbachia endosymbionts
How Wolbachia proliferation in Drosophila oocytes changes depending on a variety of dietary sucrose tastants
GG
The answers to fundamental questions about the origins of animal life and the evolution of their diverse phenotypes may be held in the genomes of distinct invertebrate phyla.
The conclusion explains why they investigated what standards an invertebrate must reach to be tested for a successful genome sequencing. The researchers also add that geneticists could choose another option than searching an organism that meets their criteria. This option is sequencing organisms and modeling them for another organism. This would allow the geneticist to understand the other organism by having an idea of how the genome functions.
The researchers also state a challenge faced by the science community is understanding the data they collect from the genome sequence, apart from also gathering the sequences. They state the research they do will help advance knowledge about invertebrate genomes by providing the necessary tools to investigate the sequences. (NAJ)
Ecological, genetic, and geological data suggest that gene flow was disrupted for the remaining three pairs by environmental change several million years before the land barrier was complete.
Biological evidence supports an early and complex emergence of the Isthmus of Panama, Christine D. Bacon, PNAS, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1423853112
https://phys.org/news/2015-04-evidence-isthmus-panama-earlier-thought.html
According to phys.org, a newly published paper suggests that the Isthmus of Panama was formed earlier than conventionally believed. The article states that the isthmus was formed in a stop and go manner over 20 million years ago; meaning that migration of organisms could have also followed the same trend. If migration of animals between North and South America started earlier, then the minimum time required for strong reproductive isolation may actually be longer than 3.5 million years. (JP)
a cessation of circulatory connections across the Panama seaway between 12.9 and 7.0 Ma as a result of altered current patterns, followed by return of a restricted shallow water connection that shoaled to a depth of less than 50 m
The formation of the Isthmus of Panama has been attributed to the ceasing of currents and changes to the depths of certain areas and levels of sand. It has been reinforced by a similar and more recent research that these changes are some of the major influences of divergence within the snapping shrimps species. (DV)
Read more in New dates and new rates for divergence across the Isthmus of Panama: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/265/1412/2257
Likewise, there is no evidence for differences among the pairs in historical effective population sizes or generation times that can be related to divergence (20).
The generation types (ex. F1, F2, etc.) and population size were taken into account for each shrimp pair. These factors were found to not support the phenomenon of divergence among shrimp pairs because no differences were found. ~J.D.A.
D. S. Jordan, Am. Nat. 42, 73 (1908)
Supports that a physical barrier will increase the chances of divergence between species creating two or more sub-species decedents . ~S.Z.
E. Mayr, Animal Species and Evolution (Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1963).
This paper contains discussion of species concepts and their application, morphological species characters and sibling species, biological properties of species, isolating mechanisms, hybridization, the variation and genetics of populations, storage and protection of genetic variation, the unity of the genotype, geographic variation, the polytypic species of the taxonomist, the population structure of species, kinds of species, multiplication of species, geographic speciation, the genetics of speciation, the ecology of speciation, and species and transpecific evolution. All of which can contribute a great deal to the topic of this paper. ~S.Z.
Our data can also be used to estimate rates of divergence in reproductive compatibility.
The less compatible they are the more they have diverged. ~S.Z.
Pacific members of the most divergent pairs are found deeper in the intertidal or are rare in habitats with heavy sedimentation (25) (Fig. 2). Thus, larval avoidance (26) of shoaling waters over the rising isthmus (6, 7) may have accelerated genetic isolation of these pairs.
The shrimp located closer to the sea floor had a slimmer chance of being pushed over the isthmus; therefore had a higher chance of isolation and divergence. ~S.Z.
However, they do show some distributional differences that could affect sensitivity to changing conditions associated with gradual rise of the isthmus.
The physical location of the shrimp could effect the divergence associated with the gradual rise of isthmus. ~S.Z
Hence, pairs P5-C5 and P6-C6 probably separated during the period of marked shoaling and environmental divergence preceding final closure.
P5-P6 pair were isolated from each other just before the final closing of the Panama seaway. This was due to shoaling of water and the environmental change that came with it. ~S.Z.
The null hypothesis, that isolation was simultaneous but rates of divergence are highly variable, is incompatible with the observed pattern because metabolic enzymes, mtDNA, and mate recognition share no mechanistic basis that would cause their divergence rates to be automatically associated.
Basically, the null is rejected because it contradicts the observed data. The null states that isolation occurred around at the same time, but the observed data shows divergence indicators such as metabolic enzymes, mtDNA, and mate recognition, all of which are not associated at a single mechanistic basis required for concurrent divergence. ~S.Z.
Geographic isolation is thought to permit divergence and speciation by disruption of gene flow
The physical barrier created by the Isthmus of Panama prevented the exchange of genes; therefore, allowing the organism to develop differently on wither side of the barrier or diverge. (SZ)
followed by failure to interbreed when partial connection between the oceans was reestablished
Because of the long separation from one another, when some connection was established between either sides of the Isthmus, the shrimp pairs no longer had preferences to each other. Their extended sexual isolation probably had them adapted into altering their breeding behavior. ~J.D.A.
All the shrimps we studied are shallow water, fully marine forms with planktonic larvae.
Main subjects studied. Planktonic larva is significant in this study because larva shrimp would migrate to different regions of the Isthmus of Panama which may be a significant contributor to speciation events ~J.D.A. (+ JP)
Fig. 2
In general, this graph illustrates that as genetic distance between species increases (this is measured by Nei's D) then mtDNA divergence increases as well. Overall, compatibility between two different organisms will be less if they have high mtDNA divergence and a high Nei's D value. (JP)
Table 1
mtDNA CO1 is a gene found within the mitochondria, it is used to measure the genetic difference between organisms. A higher mean indicates a larger difference between two organisms, which is indicative of being a different species. (JP)
J. A. Coyne and H. A. Orr, Evolution 43, 362 (1989). W. R. Rice, ibid., p. 223.
The authors performed a similarly designed experiment to the one cited here which was done on drosophila (flies). This is to show that there are other species that have undergone staggered isolation through similar or even different events. (DV)
D. L. Swofford, PAUP: Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony, version 3.1; (Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign, IL, 1993).
The authors used this source as a bases to analyze the snapping shrimps mitochondrial DNA data and arrange the organisms in a phylogenetic tree as seen in figure 1. (DV)
J. H. Gillespie, The Causes of Molecular Evolution (Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1991).
The authors site this book as they are referring to the importance of having and maintaining genetic variation within a population. Also they might have utilized the mathematical theory of selection in a fluctuating environments, since the paper focuses on environmental and geographical changes affects on isolation. (DV)
Genetic divergence before final closure may have been facilitated by changing oceanographic conditions
Genetic divergence was observed to have occured at different moments when oceanic changes like the haulting of certain currents across the Panama seaway and the shallowing of certain areas. (DV)
intolerant behavior
The intolerant behavior that has been observed in snapping shrimp known as snapping is the production of a water jet created by the larger claw that creates a loud "pop" sound. Although, it has been discovered that the actual threat in this behavior is the subsequent shock wave that comes after the water jet. (DV)
Read more in Shrimp shootouts end with a shock wave bang: http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/10/shrimp-shootouts-end-shock-wave-bang?utm_campaign=news_daily_2017-10-30&et_rid=17774509&et_cid=1632982
In entering on this field, the commissioners are aware that they have to encounter much difference of opinion as to the extent which it is expedient that this institution should occupy.
There are indeed many oppositions to anything. And of course a lot to this important issue of establishing a university. It is rather interesting to see in this report some of the rooted mindsets and values that used to be the norm for the society. Things like the uselessness of learned science and dispute over private and public education are really different from what we currently hold true: we currently value heavily on science and applied science. These differences show the trace of evolution in our society, either in a good or a bad way. It is the most important information we can get—the background knowledge that set the tongue for the past views or opinions. Moreover, since this university was erected in the long history, values or visions have been changing and need to continuously change to follow the globe. Otherwise, we will fall behind and lose our competitiveness as a global force. -- Haoyu Li
Recent studies using the Ednrb antagonist bonsentan suggest that the use of Ednrb antagonists may prove useful for the treatment of melanoma.
Ednrb antagonists could potentially be used for the treatment of melanoma. Read more: www.theoncologist.alphamedpress.org/content/20/10/1121.full.pdf (DB)
Moreover, in situ melanomas appeared in adult skin grafts, while invasive melanomas developed in newborn skin grafts indicating that the susceptibility of skin to environmental tumor promoters is dependent on age (Berking et al., 2004).
Exposure to UV radiation increases the risk of melanoma development. Read more: www.skincancer.org/media-and-press/press-release-2013/kids (DB)
Cancer progression exhibits many of the characteristics seen during development.
The progression of cancer is characterized by features that can be seen during development. Read more: https://www.cancerquest.org/cancer-biology/cancer-development (DB)
Another study in which mouse NC cultures were treated with Edn3, Edn1, or Kitl showed an increase in the number of melanocyte progenitors; however, Kitl alone was not sufficient to induce the differentiation of melanocyte progenitors into mature melanocytes. Mature melanocytes were however observed, when treatment with Kitl was followed by Edn3 or Edn1 (Reid et al., 1996). As previously noted, although in the absence of Edn3, Kit-positive and DOPA-positive cells arose in mouse NC cultures, Ednrb signaling was required for the generation of fully pigmented melanocytes (Ono et al., 1998). These findings hint to a specific requirement for Ednrb signaling, independent of Kit signaling, in melanocyte differentiation. This requirement for Ednrb in the final phase of melanocyte differentiation may occur cell-autonomously, as suggested by the inability of Ednrb null cells to generate pigment even in the presence of Kitl (Hou et al., 2004). Together these findings point at a cooperative interaction between Kit and Ednrb signaling in melanocyte development, with Ednrb signaling being specifically required in the final differentiation step
This paragraph discusses how Ednrb is needed in order to further a melanocyte into melanoma, even if Kitl (another signaling pathway) is present. Therefore, this is the direct link to melanoma.
(NB)
Energy intake and thermal excess were positively correlated with body size as measured by the curved fork length (CFL) of tagged tunas
A big tuna (large body size) requires more energy which means it needs to feed from a higher amounts of prey or big preys. Consequently, the heat production is higher provoking a thermal excess. YS & WT
Lower energy intake was observed during late summer (August and September), when bluefin tuna are moving up through the Southern California Bight (28° to 32°N).
Lower energy intake during migrations - M.A.S
one of the most valuable fish species on the planet (8)
Very open ended statement, what did they consider in order to determine its value?
M. Nei, Genetics 89, 583 (1978)
Nei found the average heterozygosity and genetic distance from a small number of individuals.This paper explains how biases arise in calculations when small samples are used. However, this paper establishes an average that reduces bias. (JP)
R. W. Rubinoff and 1. Rubinoff, Evolution 25, 88 (1971)
This paper, through studying 3 different species of Bathygobius, found that morphological divergence is not correlated with reproductive isolation. Their experiment was testing the extent in which these 3 species had evolved reproductive isolation in the Isthmus of Panama. (JP)
4. E. Bermingham and H. A. Lessios, Proc. Nati. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 90, 2734 (1993).
This source demonstrates that mitochondrial DNA is able to provide fairly accurate estimates of times since separation of a species in a 3 million year range. Here they also used organisms from the Isthmus of Panama and gel electrophoresis to deduce the time of speciation. (JP)
A. T. Vawter, R. Rosenblatt, G. C. Gorman, Evolution 34, 705 (1980)
The authors of this paper found that, through parsimony analysis of the sequence divergence estimates and of sequence polymorphisms of the Holarctic fish's mtDNA, different Holarctic fish species arose from a geographical event that occurred during the beginning of the mid-Pliocene period.
The authors of this paper cited this source because this source conducts a similar study in deducing a time frame in which speciation of the Holarctic fish occurred. (JP)
H. A. Lessios, Nature 280, 599 (1979)
This source published in 1979 to Nature tests the reliability of the molecular clock hypothesis by using Panamanian sea urchins. The author argues that the molecular clock hypothesis is not tenable or supportable. (JP)
Table 2
By quantifying behavioral tolerance and intolerance of male-female transisthmian pairs, the researchers are able to compare interactions between closely related and distantly related species of snapping shrimp.
For example, while keeping figure 1 and table 2 in mind, more closely related species have higher compatibility compared to more distantly related species. Although this is not an indicator of having viable offspring, this shows that closely related species may share similar behaviors or may have similar niches. (JP)
Fig. 1 Single most parsimonious phylogenetic tree constructed on the basis of mtDNA sequences with PAUP (18). Transitions were given one-quarter the weight of transversions (based on the fourfold greater abundance of transitions than transversions in our data), and trees were rooted by the P7-P7'-C7 clade. Taxon codes are as in Table 1.
Figure 1 is a visual representation of the relationship between differing species of snapping shrimps. This diagram was made using the mitochondria DNA sequences of the organisms and the PAUP program which calculates the level of relatedness between the sibling species of snapping shrimp.
Comparing Table 1 with Figure 1, it is found that species more closely related, such as P2 and C2, had a lower mtDNA mean value (6.6). Meanwhile, species that were more distantly related, such as P7' and C7, had a higher mtDNA mean value (19.7). (JP)
our findings suggest that the overexploitation of spawning aggregations can fundamentally alter the natural predator-prey equilibrium, limiting foraging options for reef sharks within aggregation sites.
The inverted biomass pyramid is a good thing, but the fish spawning aggregations play an important role in whether or not this stays a good thing.
McCauley, D.J., Young, H.S., Dunbar, R.B., Estes, J.A., Semmens, B.X., and Micheli, F. (2012). Assessing the effects of large mobile predators on ecosystem connectivity. Ecol. Appl. 22, 1711–1717.
This study states that sharks in the Palmyra Atoll find food in other habitats.
-RKL
Heithaus, M.R., Frid, A., Wirsing, A.J., and Worm, B. (2008). Predicting ecological consequences of marine top predator declines. Trends Ecol. Evol. 23, 202–210.
The study explains how the effects of a high cost/ low reward way of life may affect an ecosystem -M.A.S
These observations confirmed that hundreds of sharks actively feed on a large variety of prey (at least 14 fish species; Figures 4 and S3). In particular, sharks feed aggressively on the large number of groupers present during spawning aggregations in June and July [13]. Shark abundance and residency times both increase when camouflage groupers (Epinephelus polyphekadion) arrive from the surrounding reef area to spawn
there is an active correlation between the populations of prey and predators, when the camouflage groupers aggregate in order to spawn. This increase in prey is what attracts the sharks. MSARS , WT & YS
Overall, sharks showed different degree of residency (mean ± SEM = 42.21% ± 7.75% of days present in the pass; range = 2.1%–95.9%; Table S3), with three transient (<20% residency), six semi-resident (20%–70% residency), and four highly resident (>70% residency) sharks (Figure S2).
The study showed that overall, there was a higher number of sharks observed that spent most of their time in the pass than there were that spent less of their time in the pass. YS & WT
SoifIhadtochoosebetweenlibtheo,oranyology,Iwouldgowithscienceaslongasservicetothepoorwentalongwithit.ButIdon’thavetomakethatchoice,doI?”
Medicine and faith are often viewed as contradictory but they do not have to be reconciled or mutually exclusive in order to treat patients effectively.
To give to every citizen the information he needs for the transaction of his own business. To enable him to calculate for himself, and to express & preserve his ideas, his contracts & accounts in writing.
This part of the text makes it known that everyone who was to be involved in the University's establishment should have the right of knowing what goes on with his own transactions. While reading this, i was constantly reminded of how my engagement constantly talks about people having the right to control what goes on to their bodies. Some people choose to stay ignorant to the problems going on in their body while others care to know what is going on and what indeed is the best way to proceed forward. It is all a right and in no way, shape, or form should this right be violated and/or questioned. I believe that while, several other aspects of the document were designed for failure, this section provided some sort of hope for equality and self awareness. - Kayla Thomas
Education, in like manner engrafts a new man on the native stock, & improves what in his nature was vicious & perverse
This section reminded me of the philosophy of Thomas Hobbes who believed the nature of man is inherently bad and the purpose of government and education is to control man's selfish desires. In my opinion, I side more with John Locke's philosophy that the nature of man is inherently good but society is corrupted by certain negative people. Education's purpose should be to remind people of their virtuous nature and not become distracted by the inequalities and failures of society.
To understand his duties to his neighbours, & country, and to discharge with competence the functions confided to him by either.
This idea seems to be really important in being a conscious and involved member of society in our time. In light of recent events, we can look to interpret the "duties to [our] neighbors" to mean that we need to care for and support each other, regardless of differences.
Education generates habits of application, order and the love of virtue; and controuls, by the force of habit, any innate obliquities in our moral organization.
This is an interesting quote as it made me question how education generates habits of application? Is this implying that students of the University of Virginia will provide structure for future generations? “Habits of application” connotes that students will become ambitious, rather than waiting around for change, they will implement it themself. This task can often seem impossibly challenging in today’s times, however it is interesting to see how UVA’s mission was to generate powerful students since it’s creation. The “order and love of virtue” mentioned in this quote shows that education must be driven by passion. Jefferson’s entire perspective of his University was for it to be a center for lifelong learners as education should not have a limit. To lack passion is to be ignorant as there is no point to be informed without any desire or intent supporting it. Another question I had was whether the “moral organization” of society is pointing to the idea/conclusion that everyone should think in the same way? It is important to have a wide range of varying opinions; changes within societal culture and norms do not change without this element. How can there be “habits of application” if everyone is under one “moral organization”? This statement seems to contradict itself as they are developing students who will potentially change and challenge the moral organization of our society. Perhaps this was the point all along. My Doing Fieldwork engagement has taught me to look at each person as their own system, so it is interesting to see how each of our individual systems are supposed to conform to a single ideal and organization within our American society (not even considering all of the standards from the rest of the world).
Education, in like manner engrafts a new man on the native stock, & improves what in his nature was vicious & perverse, into qualities of virtue and social worth
This passage clearly exhibits the desire of human growth and expansion generated by the University. Again, there is this ambition to continue to be better than before; adding to the prestige of the University of Virginia. This quote discusses “qualities of virtue and social worth,” however, they do not outline their virtues and social worths - it is to be implied by the times of it’s creation. From my Doing Fieldwork Engagement, I have learned that social virtues and worths are extremely varied depending on the perspective. It is not fair to assume that everyone follows and conforms to one’s own expectations and values; in fact, this makes one ignorant and biased when collecting viable and strong data.
We should be far too from the discouraging persuasion, that man is fixed, by the law of his nature, at a given point: that his improvement is a chimæra, and the hope delusive of rendering ourselves wiser, happier or better than our forefathers were.
This phrase reflects Thomas Jefferson's vision for the manner in which the University would educate its students. He believed that the value of higher education was that it allowed the individual to reflect on their personal vices, prejudices, and perspectives to strive for personal improvement. Similarly, In his novel, The Myth of Individualism, Peter Callero writes, "Our educational institutions from grade school to college are structured to enhance individual achievement in a competitive system of evaluation." In this way, Callero reveals Jefferson's motivation for an individualistic student, and subsequently an individualistic society. This notion is the foundation for a contemporary, highly individualistic society.
Education, in like manner engrafts a new man on the native stock, & improves what in his nature was vicious & perverse, into qualities of virtue and social worth; and it cannot be but that each generation succeeding to the knowledge acquired by all those who preceded it, adding to it their own acquisitions & discoveries, and handing the mass down for successive & constant accumulation, must advance the knowledge & well-being of mankind:
I found this quote interesting because it refers only to white men and how they can attain virtue and social worth from education but people of other races and backgrounds cannot. This reminds me of an article that I read in my engagement class about affirmative action because the minorities were pushing for equal treatment and the opportunity to learn and receive the benefits that education would give them. The author of the article, Richard Rodriguez, was not underprivileged as a kid because he could afford education, so he did not identify with the rest of the minorities because he claimed that have the opportunity to receive an education automatically makes you not a minority. His claim relates to this quote because he sees education as a privilege that brings you up in the world because it gives you virtue and many benefits. In the modern society, people of all races and backgrounds can reap the benefits of education and knowledge, not just white men, and they are able to pass on their knowledge to future generations. It is interesting to see how far society has come in who can receive education and what education can do for everyone in the world.
Brianna:I had a negative experience where, in my master’s, my supervisor encouraged me to submit one of my papers to a journal for publication. I just submitted the paper to a journal as a course paper without making any changes, not even changing the title page. The journal told me to re-submit with revisions, but I thought thatit was a rejection, and I stopped the process—it was intimidating. I thought being involved in a journal where I know some of the people and they won’t just get an online e-mail response from editors would be helpful
Misunderstanding revise and resubmit; misunderstanding the difference between a student paper and an article.
As an outcome of this Delphi Panel exercise, this study hasrevised Jane Knight’s commonlyaccepted working definition for internationalisation as'theintentionalprocess ofintegrating an international, intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functionsand delivery of post-secondary education,in order to enhance the quality of educationand research for all students and staff, and to make a meaningful contribution tosociety'.This definition reflects the increased awareness that internationalisation has to becomemore inclusive and less elitistby not focusing predominantly on mobility but more on thecurriculum and learning outcomes. The ‘abroad’ component (mobility) needs to become anintegral part of the internationalised curriculum to ensure internationalisation for all, notonly the mobile minority. It re-emphasises that internationalisation is not a goal in itself,but a means to enhance quality, and that it should not focus solely on economic rationales.Most national strategies, including in Europe, are still predominantly focused on mobility,short-term and/or long-term economic gains, recruitment and/or training of talentedstudents and scholars, and international reputation and visibility. This implies that fargreater efforts are still needed to incorporate these approaches into more comprehensivestrategies, in which internationalisation of the curriculum and learning outcomes, as ameans to enhance the quality of education and research, receive more attention. Theinclusion of ‘internationalisation at home’ as a third pillar in the internationalisation strategyof the European Commission,European Higher Education in the World, as well as in severalnational strategies, is a good starting point, but it will require more concrete actions at theEuropean, national and,in particular, the institutional level for it to becomereality
Using inclusive approaches to ensure all students have access to quality teaching and learning and why it shouldn't be limited to the mobile few. I find it interesting since a lot of research focuses on the gain for international students only.
Gas! GAS! Quick, boys!—An ecstasy of fumbling
WWI marked the introduction of chemical warfare which in return created complete terror and pandemonium; soldiers were not prepared for the effects of chemical warfare. As Jones indicates, the use of chemical warfare was to “terrorize the enemy and make their troops temporarily lose their minds.” Alexander Watson also claimed in his study (as cited in Jones, 2014) “gas created uncertainty: unlike shrapnel, it killed from the inside, eroding a soldier’s sense of control, while raising the terrifying fear of being suffocated." Going off the “created uncertainty” we have the use of "ecstasy" which encompasses a trance-like state; coinciding with the idea of being "drunk with fatigue" (see above annotation) from the effects of the gas. The delayed reactions of the soldiers against the gas would result in a behavior of "fumbling." The gas was designed to attack the nervous system; accelerating the deterioration of the body and mind.
Drunk with fatigue
War is not only difficult on the physical aspect of an individual; it is just as difficult on the emotional and mental capacity of a human. It is factual that WWI culminated an astronomical amount of casualties, destruction, and disablement. This reference to being “drunk” may help guide us into the notion that soldiers are not able to differentiate between fantasy and reality under the duress of mentioned “fatigue.” We can understand that the state of "drunk" alters your reality and can have dangerous repercussions; in this sense, the loss of one's mind or life. In the prior lines we have loss of physical functionalities of the human body with words such as “limped on,” “lame,” and “blind,” which coincides with the premature aging or physical deterioration of the soldiers.
the benefits & blessings of which the legislature now propose to provide for the good
The authors of the Rockfish Gap Report affirm that religious worship is not conducive to a truly liberal arts education, going so far as to propose "no professor of Divinity." Yet religious language is smatter throughout the document (such as "blessings," "faithfulness," and "religious worship.") In the Virginia Statue for Religious Freedom which Thomas Jefferson also drafted, it is written,"all men shall be free to profess, and by argument to maintain, their opinions in matters of religion, and that the same shall in no wise diminish, enlarge, or affect their civil capacities." In this way, the assertions of both texts are consistent, but the biases of the authors are apparent in their use of religious language. This demonstrates that a collective view of what a society should be is not necessarily reflected in individual beliefs.
nothing, more than education, adorning the prosperity, the power and the happiness of a nation
Regarding the lens in which we view the world in my engagement class entitled Race, Racism, Colony, and Nation, this reference to the "prosperity...power, and the happiness of a nation," can be connected to the differences between the experience of the colony and the nation within America. The colony, in this case, referring to the slaves and other marginalized communities unable to enjoy these rights that Jefferson believes are adorned by education. The nation, referring to the community of white people that is clearly who this document (and at this time, the university) was made by and for.
Medicine, when fully taught, is usually subdivided into several professorships, but this cannot well be without the accessory of an hospital, where the student can have the benefit of attending clinical lectures & of assisting at operations of surgery. With this accessory, the seat of our university is not yet prepared, either by its population, or by the numbers of poor, who would leave their own houses, and accept of the charities of an hospital.
This passage foreshadows that eventually the University will further progress their medicine program but at this time and place do not have the resources to do so because they don't have a hospital in which students can study and gain clinical experience. I think it is very interesting in just 200 years since the beginning of the University how much the medicine program has flourished with the building of the UVA hospital, which is the number one hospital in the state of Virginia. Starting out, the medicine program only taught so many classes and now the medical program is thriving and attracts many different, diverse people from every walk of life. Now, I would like to focus on the second sentence specifically because I find it quite engaging and interesting that the authors of the Rockfish Gap Report thought that a hospital would attract numbers of poor because they would leave their own houses to accept the charities of a hospital. I feel many people, especially older generations, still have this belief that people in poverty take advantage of the charities of a hospital. I for one know that it happens at times because I've seen it happen before firsthand working and shadowing in an emergency room, but honestly it's not that people are taking advantage of the charities of a hospital as they state here, but instead a lot of people in poverty don't have good health, and don't have good healthcare insurance, so their only way to get good health care is by going to an emergency room at a hospital. I for one am a huge advocate for providing good health care for people in poverty because I believe a lot stems from having good healthcare. If you're healthy, you have chance to make your life better by looking for a job and making a living, but if your'e sick, like a lot of people in poverty are it's hard to do that, which is why so many people in poverty flock to places like emergency rooms when they are sick and not healthy. I think that the same thing would have happened had there been a hospital open in the community at the time the University opened. Poor people would have gone to the hospital and accepted the charities of it, but not because they were taking advantage, they would have gone because it's their only means of getting good healthcare. -Emily McClung
that to secure Ourselves where we are, we must tread with awfull reverence in the footsteps of Our fathers.
The word "secure" demonstrates a need for status and purpose. This seems interesting in reflecting on the document as a whole, which is essentially a declaration of establishment and is securing the meaning of the university. "Tread with awful reverence" prompts a reflection upon what is considered a good and valuable life in this situation. Do we need to keep this reverence in mind with all decisions that come with the progression of the school? Tana Mardian
Districts of such extent as that every parent should be within a days journey of his son at school, would be desirable in cases of sickness
In my Mortality and Morality engagement class, we often times talk about the role of family in the event that someone does become sick and how their presence can make a huge impact on how a situation is carried out. Family is often time seen as an extra layer of protection over any individual, especially for children. We assume that children are not old enough or mature enough to make major decisions for themselves, so it is ideal to keep them within reach in case of emergency. Therefore, if a school can supply resources that could be beneficial in times of need many parents would view that as a plus. - Kayla Thomas
This doctrine is the genuine fruit of the alliance between church and State,
I think it is interesting how this sentence describes that the Rockfish Gap Report is "is the genuine fruit in the alliance between church and State" because explicitly in the report the writers state that they won't offer any divinity classes at the University as it is starting out, and I think that this sentence is a contradiction of that statement. The University was built with a library ( the Rotunda) at the heart of it because they wanted to dissociate away from religion, and put knowledge first. So why then, can the Rockfish Gap Report be the genuine fruit in the alliance between church and State, when the vision when opening this University was to put knowledge at the center, and not church and religion? Therefore, in theory if knowledge was supposed to be at the center, I'm interested as to why there is such a glaring contradictory sentence. I think this contradictory shows that the writers of the Rockfish Gap Report had varying beliefs and that came across in the report. To relate, this back to my course that I'm taking called making the Invisible Visible, I think this sentence makes "visible" the invisible varying beliefs of the writers of the Rockfish Gap Report. -Emily McClung
The objects of this primary education determine its character & limits. These objects would be, To give to every citizen the information he needs for the transaction of his own business. To enable him to calculate for himself, and to express & preserve his ideas, his contracts & accounts in writing. To improve by reading, his morals and faculties. To understand his duties to his neighbours, & country, and to discharge with competence the functions confided to him by either.
I think it is interesting that the author describes the type of education the University of Virginia strives to teach. Primary education is the foundation of knowledge that one needs to be able to grow intellectually and learn about the real-world. In society, the level and quality of education one receives is of utmost importance, especially in the United States, as it guides people's actions and shapes their outlook on life.
Brown, J.H., Gillooly, J.F., Allen, A.P., Savage, V.M., and West, G.B. (2004). Toward a metabolic theory of ecology. Ecology 85, 1771–1789.
Explains the metabolic equation used in the study -M.A.S.
a happy married future can hold more of the same, not the wholesale change Elizabeth anticipates
By comparing Pride and Prejudice's concerns of marriage to Emma and Mansfield Park, Moe improves her argument about Austen's comprehension of marriage by using relevant texts to apply to Charlotte and Elizabeth's respective situations.
PhD students: How do you keep your notes while reading scientific papers?
struggle upstream against the discursive power of the term, or playfully subvert it
How to deal with the problem of conceptualization, as the process of finding terms and applying meaning to things always means reduction of complexity? A solution might be to subvert connotations and implicit meanings by highlighting certain presuppositions. This might be the task of social science, in a broader sense of philosophy (cf. Adorno, who defines philosophy's major task, simply put, in interpreting the world).
I am quite done with that person; and I beg that you will spare me any allusion to one whom I regard as dead.”
He is done with Dr. Jekyll similar to when he was done with Mr. Hyde and knows the two have become one inseparable force of evil as Mr. Hyde. Also hiding the secret of his true identity is literally killing him.
The other snarled aloud into a savage laugh;
The animalistic qualities of Hyde demonstrate his evil protruding.
Dr. Jekyll’s “disappearance or unexplained absence for any period exceeding three calendar months,” the said Edward Hyde should step into the said Henry Jekyll’s shoes without further delay and free from any burthen or obligation,
Dr. Jekyll expects his evil side to take over and does not expect to be able to recover.
The trend of deeply negative reporting still serves the corporate culture, because if people just feel doom and gloom, then you might as well just keep buying a bunch of crap, eat hamburgers, and chain smoke cigarettes because there's no future anyway.
This is so important to note. This is in a way is comparable to the Rebound Effect squared. Where the Rebound Effect goes mostly unnoticed and takes places on a subconscious level, this is rather a "Well, f**k it then...", which is more severe...
Western assay of induced SX4 cells showed the presence of Venus only in the membrane fraction and not in the cytoplasmic fraction, suggesting efficient membrane localization of Tsr-Venus.
The e coli strain engineered by the authors is behaving as they predicted.
What does this mean?
QA is QualityAssurance but QC is QualityControl The difference is that QA is process oriented and QC is product oriented. Testing, therefore is product oriented and thus is in the QC domain. Testing for quality isn't assuring quality, it's controlling it. Quality Assurance makes sure you are doing the right things, the right way. Quality Control makes sure the results of what you've done are what you expected.
legitimate the class-based system of production by making it appear right and just, and/orobscure the reality of its consequences for those involved
Ideologies are ideas and beliefs that everybody can come to an agreement. According to Marxists the ideologies are just something where everybody come to an agreement and make it into a theory
Key Institutions and their Roles
families and education
families are a unit of consumption that accept the quo and reproduce inequality – children of the rich grow rich, while the children of the poor remain poor.
education supports the existing distribution of power and wealth. maintains order, control and ensures dominant culture is passed on. reflects organization of production