Bilingualism; languageeducation; multilingualism;plurilingualism;translanguaging

But because of power differentials built up duringthe processes of nation-building and colonial formation, monolingual white elites and their ways of

A comparison of results from facultyinterviews, student questionnaires, and the document analysis wouldbe triangulation by sources and methods.

ask-based analysesreveal more than text-based analyses about the dynamic qualitiesof target discourse

real world "uses" ofgrammatical constructions often differ from the "usages"modeled in grammar-based language teaching materials

that each ofthese and other groups needs varies greatly, however, meaning thatlanguage teaching using generic programs and materials, not de-signed with particular groups in mind, will be inefficient

the lack of relevance that traditionalmaterials for teaching English as a foreign language have for refugees. To solve these issues,teachers will have access to the following resources:1. Linguistic Integration of Adult Migrants (LIAM)Toolkit (Council of Europe): Tools andresources designed to assist organizations, and especially volunteers, providing languagesupport for adult refugees.https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-support-for-adult-refugees/home?desktop=true2. Language for Resilience (British Council): Theoretical resources that examine theimpact of language on refugees and host communities, identifying how language skillsenhance resilience and providing suggestions to address key needs.https://www.britishcouncil.org/language-for-resilience3. The English Hub for Refugees: Teaching materials tailored to meet the specificlanguage learning needs and challenges of refugees and asylum seeker

nally, it is important to clarify that this course is specifically designed to support the languageteaching/learning process of refugees and asylum seekers.

in this specific learning context

Finally, it is important to clarify that this course is specifically designed to support the languageteaching/learning process of refugees and asylum seekers.

In the United States, translanguaging has more ofa social justice focus and is seen as empowering minority students

It also distinguishes pedagogicaltranslanguaging from spontaneous translanguaging and provides a definitionand theoretical principles

It is obvious that extended exposure tothe target language(s) is necessary, but there is also a real need to build on whatstudents already know

hich proposes planned activities involving two or more languagesso that languages reinforce one another and multilingual students make the mostof their linguistic repertoire and their experience as language learners andlanguage users.

Students link newinformation to old information and pedagogical translanguaging aims at reinfor-cing that process. It is also natural for multilingual speakers to use languages ina flexible way and to translanguage spontaneously (García & Li, 2014; Duarte& Kirsch, 2020). Pedagogical translanguaging has as its point of referencemultilingual individuals and multilingual societies because they represent theway people communicate

Languages can reinforce each other and prior linguistic know-ledge is an advantage that can be used in the classroom. Another argument isthat using two or more languages in the same lesson does not imply lessexposure to the target language even if this is a minority language. The timeallocated to activating resources from the majority language in the space of theminority language can easily be compensated for when pedagogical trans-languaging is implemented across the curriculum and the minority language isalso used in the majority-language lessons.

edagogical translanguaging is about activatingmultilingual speakers’ resources so as to expand language and content learning.Multilinguals have broader repertoires than monolinguals, and they are oftenmore experienced language learners

n the UK, r

participants associatedlearning English with increased autonomy and the development of a renewed socialidentity. A qualitative study by Miller

The impact of English on participants’ lives consisted of moving from dependenceto autonomy, a sense of achievement, and learning English was associatedwith hopes for further changes including in employment and education

he association between poorlanguage proficiency and psychological problems may also be mediated by employ-ment status (Hinton et al., 1997; Westermeyer et al., 1989); unemployment is itself arisk to mental health (Dooley, 2003).

Refugees’ psychological problems are better understood in thecontext of the challenges of adaptation to many difficult circumstances than inpsychiatric terms

Many refugees and asylum seekers arrive in the host country having incurredextensive material and social losses (United Nations High Commissioner forRefugees [UNHCR], 2007).

destination country prior ttination country or have friincentive to learn

assimilationdegree of return aWestern Europe (Engin the pre-accessionof the implica

xts. The selectivity of migrant groups relative to their origin countrycounterparts as well as compared with other groups may also affect their integrationprocesses (Ichou, 2014), but the implications of such selectivity across economic andcultural domains can only be understood if we know what characteristics, resourcesand orientations they arriv

data - that reveal how integration outcomes differsubstantially between immigrants from different origins across a number of WesternEuropean cou

norities inconcept of multiculturalismlarge flows of migrants fromthe issue of migrant i

The goal of the project was to obtain a more complete picture of integrprocesses in Europe and of the role of individual traits, group characteristics and retion contexts

The recovery framework provides a foundation for government andnon-government organizations seeking to improve the quality of their ser-vices to refugees.

Over the past eighteen years, VFST has provided counsellingand advocacy interventions for individuals, families and groups of refugeesfrom many different countries. It has developed a framework that linkstraumatic events, namely, the experience of violence, systemized persecu-tion and forced displacement to their social and psychological effects.These effects can include anxiety, helplessness, loss of control, isolation,loss of trust, erosion of meaning and identity, guilt and shame

As a new and emerging community, many of the Sudanese are pro-foundly affected by their experiences of war, flight and the hardship ofcamps or other places where they first seek asylum.

Two cultures: one lifeJenny Mitchell, Ida Kaplan and Louise Crowe

Acknowledgement of the strong communal culture of the SouthSudanese people is critical to the engagement and the formulation ofculturally-responsive services to support their resettlement in Australia

In

Mastery of foreign languages, spoken far away ‘in other countries’, issomething sufficiently divorced from daily life that it can be appreciated as a skill. Its mastery is likelyto be less than the mastery and attachment to English, not thereby challenging presumed deepattachments of national allegiance. However, when the languages are less foreign, when emotionalattachment and mastery may be high, their study, public use and maintenance ‘threatencivilisation’. No longer a skill, but sedition.

Even as the technological changes that accompany and make globalisation possible themselvesmultiply and diversify, and as communication becomes progressively multimodal, the universalisingand homogenising force of absorption into a common underlying ethic and process of signification isobliterating language diversity.

The effect, then, of these forces for change is to make every nation need to come to grips, in publicpolicy and in educational practice, with polyglot populations. Languages serve functions of affect andsolidarity as much as the more obvious communication function.

Claude Hagége est convaincu que sans défense de la part des Etats l’an- glais fera disparaitre les langues ethniques. Nicholas Ostler argumente dans The Last Lingua Franca : English until the return of Babel que la domination de l’an- glais finira, comme celle des autres langues globales. C’est la diversité qui est naturelle pour l’histoire et la globalisation est toujours imposée. Elle se produit seulement parce qu’elle promet quelques biens économiques ou culturels. Bientét une langue globale ne sera méme plus nécessaire di aux outils technologiques de la communication. Cela est un peu utopique, mais il y a des prévisions plus réalistes.

La globalisation communi- cationnelle vient donc de deux facteurs : le postcolonialisme et la globalisation réceptive de l’anglais. La domination actuelle de l’anglais est inédite. C’est pour- quoi on parle souvent de la globalisation seulement dans le contexte contem- porain. Pourtant, ces processus existent depuis l’aube de l’humanité.

AU XVII‘ siécle le frangais commence a dominer.

titre de comparaison on peut men- tionner l’Europe médiévale avec ses trois langues de culture : latin, grec et arabe. Le plurilinguisme des élites n’était rien d’extraordinaire. Le statut de Vitalien comme une langue de culture et de la diplomatie a l’époque de la Renaissance constitue le premier exemple de la globalisation purement réceptive. Son succes est dai uniquement a l’influence culturelle de la Renaissance italienne : sa littéra- ture, ses beaux-arts et sa musique.

Au Moyen Age, c’est l’empire arabe

II faut souligner que dans 1’Anti- quité, il y avait aussi des langues globales, car le monde pour l’homme antique a d'autres dimensions que notre monde aujourd’hui. II suffit de regarder la carte de Claude Ptolémée, ot! le monde comprend seulement la région méditerranéenne, l'Inde et la Chine. Pour l’empereur Auguste, le latin était une vraie langue globale qui se répandit a la suite des guerres impliquant la terre entiére.

Et la globalisation réelle ? Son outil, c’est une langue naturelle supra-ethnique et supra-nationale que l’on appelle aussi langue globale, universelle, mondiale, internationale, lingua franca ou interlingua.

his situation can be remedied if pedagogical translanguagingis also implemented in the Basque and Spanish classes and students work with thethree languages in the three language classes.

An important benefit of pedagogical translanguaging is that learners can have greateraccess to information when they can use different languages.

The school languages can be national lan-guages which are widely used in the country where the school is located, minority lan-guages which are used in the region where the school is located or other second andforeign languages such as English.

In this article we look at language classes, but pedagogicaltranslanguaging is also relevant for the learning of academic content because contentis learned through the medium of language

Multilingual speakers have a rich repertoire, which can be used as a resource to commu-nicate and to learn additional languages more effectively. It is natural for multilingualspeakers to try to use resources from other languages because they try to link theirprior knowledge to new knowledge. ‘Focus on multilingualism’ also looks at thesocial context of communicative interaction. When multilingual speakers communicate(face-to-face or digitally) they use multilingual resources in their repertoire and translan-guage to a greater or lesser extent depending on the social context.

Pedagogical translanguaging has these characteristics (Cenoz and Gorter,2021):1) It can be applied not only to two languages, as in Wales, but also to three or morelanguages and even to students’ home languages, which are not in the schoolcurriculum

We argue that learning can be enhanced when hard boundaries that isolate languagesare replaced by soft and permeable boundaries so that students can use their prior knowl-edge when teaching and learning a second or additional language. We discuss the conceptof pedagogical translanguaging as compared to other uses of the term translanguaging. Inthe second section we look at the way it can be applied in language programmes for stu-dents of different backgrounds. Then we address practices based on pedagogical trans-languaging in language classes. The final section discusses the challenges and futureperspectives of pedagogical translanguaging.Cenoz and Gorter 343

In the context of language learning, themost important knowledge that students have is the knowledge of previously acquiredlanguages. To exclude this knowledge could have a negative effect on the learningprocess.

ultilingual speakers are different frommonolingual speakers in that they have the possibility of using resources from differentlanguages when they communicate

The richtrajectories multilingual students often have are useful resources for learningadditional languages and academic subjects

Participant and non-participant observation have theadvantage of allowing direct, in-depth, contextualized study of whatparticipants actually do, of the activities of interest in their naturalenvironment (natural, that is, except for the presence of the outsideobserver in the case of non-participant observation

Language audits aredifficult to define because in practice they often include someactivities and produce some of the same data typical of a NA

An audit is useful for providing a quick overview of a situation andidentifying mismatches between perceptions and reality, betweenwhat is going on and what should b

uestionnaires, especially if mailed, group-administered or adminis-tered by third parties, can procure sizeable amounts of focused,standardized, organized data, potentially from a large sample ofrespondents, and do so relatively quickly and cheaply. They canaccomplish all this, moreover, with the option of anonymity (shouldthat be important to respondents) and with less chance of interviewerbias, since the questions asked, the order in which they are asked,and the precise way they are asked can all be carefully planned andfixed. On the other hand, response rates can be low, and the type ofinformation and range of responses obtained are likely to be limitedby the use of pre-determined questions and response options andformats. In a sense, that is, unstructured interviews serve to identifyrelevant questions, whereas questionnaires assume knowledge of theright questions and test hypotheses about answers

The interview is a keydata-gathering tool in many branches of the social sciences, mostnotably in anthropology and linguistics fieldwork.

hey includeboth inductive and deductive procedures (Berwick, 1989). Theformer involve use of expert intuitions, participant and non-participant observation, and unstructured interviews, from whichcategories of needs are derived; the latter include use of devices andinstruments, such as structured interviews, questionnaires, andcriterion-referenced performance tests, with pre-set categories

When different sources and/or methods produce conflicting find-ings, it is important to pursue the matter. Which sources are right, ormore likely to be, and which to be followed when designing aprogram? Are none of them right? Or are all of them right (at leastthose involving different sources)? Assuming one rejects the post-modernist and epistemological relativist view that different views ofreality, including tasks, simply reflect the fact (sic) that all of them are'socially constructed' (in which case, there would be no such thing as'facts', and one would not be bothered by conflicting findings, orindeed by 'findings' at all), this is exactly where triangulation, asopposed to informal cross-checking, can help the needs analyst. So,too, can one or more independent measures of the variable con-cerned, e.g., students' L2 proficiency or a flight attendant's know-ledge and competenc

Not to be confused withany of the above, checking findings from two (or two hundred) moreindividuals of the same type using the same procedure, e.g., thefindings from one faculty interview against those from anotherfaculty interview, simply constitutes what Lincoln & Guba (p. 305)call 'multiple copies' of one type of source, not triangulation ofdifferent sources. Similarly, comparing findings from faculty inter-views with reading requirements listed on course syllabuses writtenby the same faculty members would be a case of comparing differentmethods of accessing the same information from the same source, nottriangulation of sources

All these individuals cansometimes provide useful information on such matters as theirlearning styles and preferences,

There is an urgent need for courses of all kindsto be relevant - and to be seen to be relevant - to the needs of specificgroups of learners and of society at large.

he backgroundknowledge, cultural knowledge, and sociolinguistic and pragmaticskills required are sometimes difficult even for native speakers toacquire, and harder still for the two populations targeted in herstudy: recent immigrants, and workers with an intellectual disability.

n

Having described the NAs themselves, Lett moves on to discussseveral important reliability and validity issues that should be ofconcern to needs analysts everywhere, but which have very rarelybeen discussed in the NA literature. These include the use ofconvenience samples of subject matter experts, the lack of readyexternal criteria for assessing the validity of analyses, the lack ofindependence of proficiency level ratings obtained via the collabora-tive group process, possible response bias, and the halo effect. Heidentifies potential solutions to several of the problems, e.g., stratifiedrandom sampling, use of surrogate or partial test-retest and modifiedsplit-half procedures for improving reliability, and relating DLIgraduates' language proficiency ratings to supervisors' field reportson their subsequent job performance in predictive validity studies. Hepoints out, however, that the increased costs in time and personnel,among other problems, would often render them inadequate, or insome cases preclude their adoption altogether.

This and an accompanying cost-benefit analysis allowthem to distinguish 'private marginal value' - what an individualconsiders when deciding to learn or maintain skills in a language, and'social marginal value' - the societal need for that language.

findings and rationales for recommendations need to beexplicit, empirically-supported and expressed using concepts andterminology familiar to them

In the opening chapter, 'Methodological issues in learner needsanalysis', I provide a summary and evaluation of various sources ofinformation for a NA (published and unpublished literature, thelearners, applied linguists, domain experts, triangulated sources);methods of obtaining that information (expert and non-expert in-tuitions, interviews, questionnaire surveys, language audits, partici-pant and non-participant observation, ethnographic methods,journals and logs, language proficiency and competency measures);and source x method combinations.

discourse communities of which they seek to becomemembers. As a recent discussion of discourse communities in aca-demic disciplines concluded:Communities ... differ from one another along both socialand cognitive dimensions, offering contrasts not just in theirfields of knowledge, but also in their ways of talking, theirargument structures, aims, social behaviors, power relations,and political interests. (Hyland & Hamp-Lyons, 2002, p. 6)

s así como los pueblosoriginarios del sur de Chile y los desaparecidos de la dictadurade Pinochet se urden en un entramado con el desierto deAtacama, la astronomía, las mujeres buscadoras de Calama, elagua y los botones de nácar, entre otros hilos de la historia.

Desde esa altura sería además el primero en ver la nube de polvo anun­ciando la llegada de la mensajería, ya dos días demorada, en la cual para que la ilusión lo sostuvie­ra decidió inmotivada­mente que llegaría por fin el agri­mensor

Avec audace et créativité, il compose et construit alors des œuvres structurées entre réalité pragmatique et inventivité fertile et imagée. Ainsi, à travers l’écriture en français, Confiant transcrit ses particularités linguistiques, culturelles, sociales et même ethniques.

Le temps du récit est fixé dans les années soixante et l’auteur semble profiter de l’émergence de plusieurs quartiers populaires dans cette ville martiniquaise. Il s’approprie également le rythme qui caractérise le centre ville pour pouvoir glisser les indices et construire les leurres.

r playing the game. This isto as seeing s

tions. The firstperspective holds that occupational segreducation, experience and s

This review suggests that (a) racial minpositions, and (b) that the under-represdecision makers. The purpose of this sSpecifically, we examined whether spromotability ratings of applicants difframework, design an

(1998). Specifically, these authors demonstrated thbeliefs about African Americans, held by employed White adults, wwith the characteristics believed necessary to succ

"There were four things we tried to teach these kids," Carter said. "It was accountability, integrity, how to be a great follower before you can ever be a great leader, and it was all about team and family."

he difference is that 93 percent of SouthKorean students graduate from high school, compared withjust JJ percent of American students—only about 2 percent ofwhom receive athletic scholarships to college

Our analysissuggests that the most engaging environment you can offer stu-dents is one of cognitive challenge combined with individual-ised pedagogical support," he told me in an e-mail. "Ifyou offerboring and poor math instruction and try to compensate thatwith interesting sport activities, you may get students interestedin sports but I doubt it will do much good to their engagementwith school

In these communities, the dominant argument is usuallythat sports lure students into school and keep them out oftrouble—the same argument American educators have madefor more than a century. And it remains relevant, without adoubt, for some small portion of students

N MANY S C H O O L S , sports are so entrenched that noone—not even the people in charge—realizes their actual cost

The National Collegiate Athletic Association had emergedby this time, as a means of reforming the increasingly brutalsport of college football. But the enforcers were unable tokeep pace with the industry. Once television exponentiallyexpanded the fan base in the mid-2Oth century, collegiatesports gained a spiritual and economic choke hold on Amer-ica. College scholarships rewarded high-school athletes, andthe search for the next star player trickled down even to gradeschool.

But what to make of this other glaring reality, and the signalit sends to children, parents, and teachers about the very pur-pose of school

o gen-uinely improve the life chances of poor urban youth wouldrequire a sustained political and economic commitment byall segments of society. Now that would be a story worthtelling on the big screen

California Governor Gray Davis was abig fan of Carter’s at the time of the lockout. He attended thefirst basketball game held after the lockout and proclaimedCarter a hero who epitomized the governor’s approach toeducation

he urban public high school. In

The problem for the England selectors is perhaps similar to that facing England as a nation. For 30 years or more thosewith authority in education, assisted by politicians and those in the mass media, have conspired --- in the sociologicalsense of creating a climate of opinion --- to produce a public ideology designed to remove any sense of pride or senseof place in the hearts of those who are unequivocally English

elsonian eye adopted

Second, he shows howtriangulation by sources (scholars, company representatives, domainexperts, and documents) and methods (unstructured and structuredinterviews, introspections, non-participant observation, and ques-

ence, methodo-logical issues in NA constitute a major focus of this volume, andcontributors include explicit discussion of their very varied method-ologies in their chapters

ery language courseshould be considered a course for specific purposes, varying only(and considerably, to be sure) in the precision with which learnerneeds can be specified

nage everydaamong most migmigrants only pthe Netherlands).general logic amWhen looking atmore integrated isince we studiedthro

Results

They gradually became more involved inthe teaching process and participated more actively. Drawing from their ownvoices:

Our data analysis meth-ods were qualitative thematic analysis and critical discourse analysi

2 MethodologyConcerning the research methodology, both projects were team-based and inter-disciplinary

e conductedneeds analysis (Long 2005), which was perceived in a more societal way

The two projects had four main characteristics

A qualitative approach was adopted using interviews, focus groups, ethnograph-ic observation, and written reports. B

Mears emphasizes the connection between researcher and participant, seeking to breakdown barriers between researcher and participants through empathy and the developmentof an insider perspective.

Film is the reflection of our society, and Coach Carter reflects not only the reality of sports in Americanhigh school but also the reality of education. Sports are 1mportant but not enough.

Coach Carter is all about a teacher who taught his students about life. The movie goes against thebelief that education can only happen inside classroom and tell us that the education on life can belearnt anywhere. In this case, sports takes an important role but its significance has been obscured

The movie has sent a strong message against the common belief ofsuccess can be found in sports but the classroom, especially for African American young menparticularly, and minority populations in general.

Nonetheless, Coach Carter is still more or less a typical sports movie and it is understandable if themovie follows some conventional and stereotypical formula, especially the biased reactions from thecommunity, the portrayals of the girls or the depiction of school

ell let me tell you what I see, I see a system, that is designed for you to fail, now I know thatall of you like stats so let me give you some, Richmond high only graduates 50% of it's students,and of those that do graduate only 6% go to college, Which tells me when I walk down thesehalls and look in your class rooms, maybe only one student 1s going to go to college, Well damnCoach Carter if I ain't going to college where am I going to go? Well that's a great question andthe answer for young African-American men in here is this, probably to prison, 1n this county20

This storyprovides an msight on how the boys see their future, with and without guidance. The second sidestory was about Cruz and his process of becoming a man, when Cruz with the influence from hiscousin can easily become a drug dealer or a thug in the futur

In fact, there is a common myth that sport can be the way to the richness andsocial class, especially in minority populations. ‘Thus, the movie challenges this idea through the storyof sport.

However, the designingprinciple or how the stories are told is what makes Coach Carter standing out and different from others.At the beginning, it started as a normal sports movie with a coach and team struggling to be better.However, the main conflict of the movie revolves around the idea of which is more smportant: a gloryseason in high school or a secure place in college and life.

Sport is not the life-changing subject for students in education movies. The lessons of sports were notbelieved to be educational, certainly to the sense of conventional education system. Film genre-wise,sports movies is also a separated genre from education movies because education movies talk aboutschool, teacher, and students while sports movies can be outside school. However, Coach Carter wasset in high school and the movie’s content is about education. Hence, how does Coach Carter reflectthe debate between sports and academics 1n reality? And what does Coach Carter say about the idea ofeducation?

Most of these research is focus on the teaching, however, there are also other matters and questionscan be raised. First and foremost is a deeper focus on the problems inside the school through thefilmic depiction, especially inner-city school, and racism is one of the most circulated problems.

le the outside classroom education is highly personal and subjective, with differentimpacts a case by case basis, the inside classroom education 1s more universal and relatable. For thosewho have been through school, the memories of an inspiring teacher, a best friend or an unforgettablelesson will always linger on.

n the other hand, Bowenand Hitt (2013) argued that both sport and academic success require focus and dedication, thus, thesuccess 1n one field will likely to benefit the other.

n the modern education system, sports are irrelevant to the education of the mind. Sir Ken Robinson(2006) suggested that there is a hierarchy of subject 1n education system around the world, whichbasically was built to serve industrialism, with mathematics and languages on top, then humanities,and finally arts, at the bottom; and the public education was built upon two ideas: what is essential forwork and what is required for college.

rnanen, Mirja, Tatjana Rynkänen & Sari Pöyhönen. 2015. Kielen käyttö ja oppiminenaikuisten maahanmuuttajien integroitumisen ja identiteettien rakennusaineena[‘Language use and learning in integration and construction of identities among adultmigrants’]. In Teppo Jakonen, Juha Jalkanen, Terhi Paakkinen & Minna Suni (eds.),AFinLA vuosikirja 73: Kielenoppimisen virtauksia – Flows of language learning. 56 – 72.Jyväskylä: Finnish Association for Applied Lingu

Well, it’s better for me to say also in Eng-lish, I can refresh my English and can keep it alive” (Laura, volunteer)

In general, the informants learnt Finnish by participating in various activi-ties and events organised in the workplace.

How do migrant NGO practitioners learn andmaintain languages in the workplace?”

The Finnish integration policy supports migrants in learning national lan-guages, Finnish and Swedish, and in maintaining their mother tongue,regardless of their legal status

“Crawlers, footers and runners”: language ideological attributions to adultlanguage learners in a Dutch as L2 classroom 37

Integration ... needs language, the language of the workplace”:The contribution of work-related second language learning to the integrationof adult migrants 303Table of Contents / Sommaire XIII

Language skills and employment status of adult migrants in Europe

Research-driven task-based L2 learning for adult immigrants in times ofhumanitarian crisis: results from two nationwide projects in Greece

Les besoins langagiers des adultes migrants : une notion complexe àappréhender

L’intégration linguistique des migrants adultes : la mise en œuvre despolitiques publiques dans la région suisse alémanique de Zurich

Integration trajectories of adult (im)migrants in minority and minoritizedcontexts: Ottawa and Barcelona 97

Team Benched for Grades to Resume Play By MARIA L. La GANGA and SARAH YANG

I want to explore the idea of education and also theidea of sports education through the cinematic representation of Coach Carter. More specifically, howdoes Coach Carter reflect the debate between sports and academics in reality? What does Coach Cartersay about the idea of education?

Levi Coffin

stood aloof

fleeing from bondage

concealin

shackles of bondage

steadfast

abhorred

Building intercultural competence in the languageclassroom

Los alumnos que cuenten con una preparación plurilingüe tendránmayor facilidad de integración en la realidad actual internacionalizada, conuna visión plural de la sociedad (Kramer y Nugent, 2014). Serán así individuosy profesionales en un contexto global donde el conocimiento de una lenguaextranjera les brinda una apertura constante a los demás y un vínculo entreculturas diversas. En suma, podrán operar de manera plena comoprofesionales y fomentar la integración y cohesión en los planos profesional ypersonal.

But the stars shone out as brightly as if such things had never been, the blushingfruit-trees poured their fragrance on the evening air, and the scene was ascalmly sweet and quiet as if Man had never marred the glorious beauties ofEarth by deeds of cruelty and wrong

, that did not bear each its own sad burden of thoseunhappy ones, whose only crime is that they are not strong and wise.

the buyer, who now heldall their happiness in his hands

Some of them regarded the sale with perfectindifference, never making a motion, save to turn from one side to the other atthe word of the dapper Mr. Byran,

Blighted homes, crushed hopes and broken hearts

demeanor were quite as unexceptionable as they would have been had theybeen the highest ladies in the land, and through all the insults to which theywere subjected they conducted themselves with the most perfect decorumand self-respect.

where the slave liked the appearance of the proposed buyer, and fanciedthat he might prove a kind "Mas'r

s were examined with as little consideration as if they had beenbrutes indeed;

brutes

It is true they were sold "in families"; but let us see: a man and his wife werecalled a "family,"

intertwined

shambles

two happy little communities

were torn asunder,

homes

unhappy

Do they notnaturally become one great family, each man a brother unto each

None of the Butler slaves have ever been sold before, but have been on thesetwo plantations since they were born.

ismal Swamp,

negro speculators

revolvers and kindred delicacies

ough breed, slangy, profane and bearish,

hither

breakingup of an old family estate

Star-SpangledAmerica

chattels

Resettlement significantly alters the position the refugees occupy in theirsocial networks. In a country of resettlement, such as Australia, the notionof an elder can be problematic

The receiving society, through its institutional structureand the way it reacts to newcomers, has much more say in the outcomesof an integration process (Penninx, 2003)

Community recovery needed to address this fragmentation, and look atways to support the community to sustain its identity in a new and differentenvironment.

s the project progressed,it became obvious that, among the group, there was a shared desire toprotect and assert these identities in the face of resettlement challenges as

. Supporting the organic anddynamic processes (Ife, 2003, p. 4) of people coming together to achievecommon goals helps to restore meaning and purpose to their lives andinstills hope for the future

A more sustain-able initiative was the production of a regular community radio programme

. This pilot project sought to assess

This approach shares many parallels withSarig’s community resilience model discussed by Doron, which acknowl-edges the need to build strong coping mechanisms from within the commu-nity and identifies components of community resilience, includingbelonging, control, leadership, values and support systems

Investigación-Acción

Santos-Sopena, O. O. (2016). Interculturalidad y migración: la experiencia educativa y lingüística en el aprendizaje de español en rumanos. Revista Nebrija de Lingüística Aplicada, 10 (21), pp. 59-62. https://doi.org/10.26378/rnlael1021273 

Brady, I. K., Tomás Cámara,  D. y Sánchez Muñoz, A. R. (2019). El desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa e intercultural en lengua inglesa mediante un estudio de campo con residentes extranjeros en España. Docencia e Investigación, 30, pp. 33-54.

Multiliteraci

La respuesta se encuentra parcialmente en la juven-tud del Estado suizo, cuyo nacimiento resulta dificil dedatar más allá de 1813-1815 "sin el auxilio de ciertaprevaricación", como observa socarron.u:nente H~ghe~,44quien nos recuerda que la pnmera ciudadanía SUlz~verdadera, la introducción del sufragio (masculino) di-recto, y la abolición de las áreas "internas" de peajes yderechos de aduana fueron logros de la República Hel-vética creada forzadamente por la ocupación francesade 1798. Sólo en 1803 incluyó el Estado grupos impor-tantes que hablaban italiano con la adquisición de Tesi-no. Apenas en 1815 obtuvo las populosas áreas de ha-bla francesa de Valais, Ginebra y Neuchátel, quitándolasa una vengativa Santa Alianza antifrancesa, a cambio dela neutralidad y de una constitución muy conservadora."En efecto, la Suiza multilingüe de hoyes un producto deprincipios del siglo XIX:

Se reconoce en forma nomenos general que el papel de vanguardia de las inteUi-gentsias se debió a su instrucción bilingüe, o mejor di-cho a su instrucción y bilingüismo. El alfabetismo ha-cía posible ya la comunidad imaginada flotante en eltiempo homogéneo, vacío, a la que ya hemos hecho re-ferencia. El bilingüismo significaba acceso, por mediode la lengua de Estado europea, a la cultura occidentalmoderna en el sentido más amplio, y en particular alos modelos del nacionalismo, la nacionalidad y la na

En el periodo de 18()()..1850, de resultas de la obraprecursora de académicos nativos, se formaron tres len-guas literarias distintas en el norte de los Balcanes: elesloveno, el serbocroata y el búlgaro. En el decenio de1830 se creía generalmente que los "búlgaros" forma-ban parte de la misma nación que los serbios y loscroatas, y en efecto habían participado en el movimien-to ilirio, pero en 1878 surgía un Estado nacional búlgaroseparado. En el siglo XVIII apenas se toleraba el ucrania-no como lengua de campesinos. Pero en 1798 escribió(van Kotlarevsky su Aeneid, un poema satírico de la vidaucraniana que gozó de enorme popularidad. En 1804se fundó la Universidad de Jarkov y pronto se convirtióen el centro de un auge de la literatura ucraniana. En1819 apareció la primera gramática ucraniana, sólo 17años después de la gramática oficial rusa. Yen el dece-nio de 1830 aparecieron las obras de Taras Shevchen-ko, de quien dice Seton-Watson que "la formación deuna lengua 'literaria ucraniana aceptada le debe másque a cualquier otro individuo. El uso de esta lenguafue la etapa decisiva de la formación de una conciencianacional ucraniana"." Poco tiempo después, en 1846

Las autoridades soviencas lo Iml~ron, pnme-ro con el uso obligatorio antiislámico y anuperS3; del al-fabeto latino; luego, en los años treinta con Stalin, conel empleo obligatorio del alfabeto cirílico rusíficanre

Así pues, con un espíritu antropológico propongo ladefinición siguiente de la nación: una comunidad polítí-ca i~Ol.~C:(}!Do.¡tlJ:¡~rentemente limitada y soberana.

Conférence en Sorbonne, le 11 mars 1882

Ernest Renan

Une nation est donc une grande solidarité, constituée par le sentiment des sacrifices qu'on a faitset de ceux qu'on est disposé à faire encore. Elle suppose un passé; elle se résume pourtant dans leprésent par un fait tangible: le consentement, le désir clairement exprimé de continuer la viecommune.

Une nation est une âme, un principe spirituel. Deux choses qui, à vrai dire, n'en font qu'une,constituent cette âme, ce principe spirituel. L'une est dans le passé, l'autre dans le présent. L'uneest la possession en commun d'un riche legs de souvenirs; l'autre est le consentement actuel, ledésir de vivre ensemble, la volonté de continuer à faire valoir l'héritage qu'on a reçu indivis.

L'homme est tout dans la formation de cette chose sacrée qu'on appelle unpeuple. Rien de matériel n'y suffit. Une nation est un principe spirituel, résultant descomplications profondes de l'histoire, une famille spirituelle, non un groupe déterminé par laconfiguration du sol

La communauté des intérêts fait lestraités de commerce. Il y a dans la nationalité un côté de sentiment; elle est âme et corps à la fois

De nos jours, lasituation est parfaitement claire. Il n'y a plus de masses croyant d'une manière uniforme. Chacuncroit et pratique à sa guise, ce qu'il peut, comme il veut. Il n'y a plus de religion d'État; on peutêtre français, anglais, allemand, en étant catholique, protestant, israélite, en ne pratiquant aucunculte. La religion est devenue chose individuelle; elle regarde la conscience de chacun

N'abandonnons pas ceprincipe fondamental, que l'homme est un être raisonnable et moral, avant d'être parqué dans telleou telle langue, avant d'être un membre de telle ou telle race, un adhérent de telle ou telle culture.Avant la culture française, la culture allemande, la culture italienne, il y a la culture humaine

Leslangues sont des formations historiques, qui indiquent peu de choses sur le sang de ceux qui lesparlent, et qui, en tout cas, ne sauraient enchaîner la liberté humaine quand il s'agit de déterminerla famille avec laquelle on s'unit pour la vie et pour la mort.

Au contraire, la Suisse, si bien faite,puisqu'elle a été faite par l'assentiment de ses différentes parties, compte trois ou quatre langues. Ily a dans l'homme quelque chose de supérieur à la langue: c'est la volonté.

La race, comme nous l'entendons, nous autres, historiens, est donc quelquechose qui se fait et se défait. L'étude de la race est capitale pour le savant qui s'occupe de l'histoirede l'humanité. Elle n'a pas d'application en politique. La conscience instinctive qui a présidé à laconfection de la carte d'Europe n'a tenu aucun compte de la race, et les premières nations del'Europe sont des nations de sang essentiellement mélangé

La vérité est qu'il n'y a pas de race pure et que faire reposer la politique sur l'analyseethnographique, c'est la faire porter sur une chimère.

L'invasion des barbares fut, malgré les apparences, un pas de plus dans cette voie. Les découpuresde royaumes barbares n'ont rien d'ethnographique; elles sont réglées par la force ou le caprice desenvahisseur

À entendre certains théoriciens politiques, une nation est avant tout une dynastie, représentant uneancienne conquête, conquête acceptée d'abord, puis oubliée par la masse du peuple

Mais qu'est-ce donc qu'une nation ? Pourquoi la Hollande est-elle une nation, tandis que leHanovre ou le grand-duché de Parme n'en sont pas une ? Comment la France persiste-t-elle à êtreune nation, quand le principe qui l'a créée a disparu ? Comment la Suisse, qui a trois langues,deux religions, trois ou quatre races, est-elle une nation, quand la Toscane, par exemple, qui est sihomogène, n'en est pas une ? Pourquoi l'Autriche est-elle un État et non pas une nation ? En quoile principe des nationalités diffère-t-il du principe des races ?

La nation moderne est donc un résultat historique amené par une série de faits convergeant dans lemême sens