current
EN: Electric current is the rate at which electric charge flows through a conductor. - Unit: ampere (A). - Current in a circuit is associated with energy transfer; devices transform electrical energy into other forms.
中文：电流是电荷通过导体的流动速率。 - 单位：安培（A）。 - 电路中的电流对应能量的传递，用电器把电能转化为其他形式。
mass
EN: Mass is the amount of matter in an object and a measure of its inertia (resistance to changes in motion). - Unit: kilogram (kg). - In this Topic, mass affects both KE (1/2 mv^2) and GPE (m g Δh) linearly.
中文：质量表示物体所含物质的多少，也是惯性大小的量度（抗拒运动状态改变的能力）。 - 单位：千克（kg）。 - 在本主题中，质量会线性影响动能（1/2 mv^2）和重力势能（m g Δh）。
acceleration due to gravity
EN: Acceleration due to gravity (g) near Earth is about 9.8 m/s^2. - It is the acceleration of a freely falling object (ignoring air resistance). - g is used in gravitational potential energy: GPE = m g Δh.
中文：近地面重力加速度 g ≈ 9.8 m/s^2。 - 忽略空气阻力时，自由落体的加速度约为 g。 - 在重力势能公式中使用：GPE = m g Δh。
change in height
EN: Change in height (Δh) is the difference between final and initial height. - It tells how much gravitational potential energy changes: ΔGPE = m g Δh. - Δh depends on the chosen reference level and can be positive or negative.
中文：高度变化（Δh）是末高度与初高度之差。 - 它决定重力势能的变化：ΔGPE = m g Δh。 - Δh 与所选参考高度有关，可为正也可为负。
velocity
EN: Velocity is speed with direction (a vector). - Unit: metres per second (m/s). - Because KE ∝ v^2, doubling velocity makes kinetic energy 4 times larger (if mass is the same).
中文：速度（velocity）是带方向的速率（矢量）。 - 单位：米每秒（m/s）。 - 因为动能与 v^2 成正比，同质量时速度加倍，动能会变为 4 倍。
kilojoules
EN: A kilojoule (kJ) is 1000 joules. - We often use kJ because the joule is a small unit in everyday situations.
中文：千焦（kJ）= 1000 焦耳（J）。 - 由于焦耳较小，生活和化学/食品能量等常用千焦表示。
joule (J)
EN: The joule (J) is the SI unit of energy. - 1 J = 1 N·m = 1 kg·m^2/s^2. - Rough sense of scale: lifting a 0.10 kg object by 1 m requires about 1 J of gravitational potential energy.
中文：焦耳（J）是能量的国际单位。 - 1 J = 1 N·m = 1 kg·m^2/s^2。 - 直观尺度：把约 0.10 kg 的物体抬高 1 m，大约需要 1 J 的重力势能。
ultraviolet radiation
EN: Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than visible violet light. - UV photons have relatively high energy and can cause chemical changes (e.g., sunburn).
中文：紫外线（UV）是波长比紫光更短的电磁辐射。 - 紫外光子能量较高，可能引起化学变化（如晒伤）。
efficient
EN: An energy transformation is efficient if a large fraction of the input energy becomes useful output. - Efficiency = (useful output energy) / (input energy) × 100%. - Real systems are never 100% efficient because some energy becomes unwanted thermal/sound energy due to friction and resistance.
中文：能量转化“高效”表示输入能量中有较大比例变成了有用的输出。 - 效率 = 有用输出能量 / 输入能量 × 100%。 - 真实系统不可能 100% 高效，因为摩擦/电阻等会使部分能量转为不想要的热能/声能。
friction
EN: Friction is a force that opposes motion between surfaces (or through air/water). - Friction converts mechanical energy into less useful forms, mainly thermal energy (and sometimes sound). - This is why motion usually slows down without additional energy input.
中文：摩擦力是阻碍相对运动的力（包括表面摩擦和空气/水阻力）。 - 摩擦会把机械能转化为较难利用的热能（有时还有声能）。 - 因此没有持续能量输入时，运动往往会逐渐减慢。
sound energy
EN: Sound energy is energy carried by vibrations (mechanical waves) traveling through matter. - Sound requires a medium (air, water, solids) and cannot travel through a vacuum. - When absorbed, sound energy often transforms into thermal energy.
中文：声能是由振动产生并通过介质传播的机械波所携带的能量。 - 声音需要介质（空气/水/固体），真空中不能传播。 - 被吸收后通常转化为热能。
radiant energy
EN: Radiant energy is energy carried by electromagnetic radiation (waves/photons). - It includes visible light, infrared, and ultraviolet. - When absorbed by matter, radiant energy often transforms into thermal energy.
中文：辐射能是由电磁辐射（电磁波/光子）携带的能量。 - 包括可见光、红外线、紫外线等。 - 被物质吸收后常转化为热能。
infrared
EN: Infrared is electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer than visible red light. - It is often experienced as warmth because absorbing infrared increases thermal energy.
中文：红外线是波长比红光更长的电磁辐射。 - 常被感受到“热”，因为吸收红外线会增加物体的热能。
nuclear energy
EN: Nuclear energy is energy stored in atomic nuclei. - It can be released by fission, fusion, or radioactive decay. - Nuclear energy has a very high energy density compared with chemical energy.
中文：核能是储存在原子核中的能量。 - 可通过核裂变、核聚变或放射性衰变释放。 - 相比化学能，核能的能量密度非常高。
magnetic potential energy
EN: Magnetic potential energy is stored due to the position/orientation of magnets in a magnetic field. - If released, this stored energy can transform into kinetic energy as objects move.
中文：磁势能是由磁体在磁场中的位置/方向而储存的能量。 - 释放后可转化为动能，使物体发生运动。
Heat
EN: Heat is thermal energy that is transferred from a warmer object to a cooler one because of a temperature difference. - Heat is energy in transit (not a substance stored inside an object). - Unit: joule (J).
中文：热量是由于温度差从高温物体传递到低温物体的热能。 - 热量强调“传递中的能量”，不是物体内部的一种“物质”。 - 单位：焦耳（J）。
thermal energy
EN: Thermal energy is the total kinetic energy of the particles in matter (microscopic motion). - Generally, higher temperature means greater average particle kinetic energy. - Thermal energy can be transferred as heat when there is a temperature difference.
中文：热能（更准确地说是与温度有关的内能部分）来自物质内部粒子的微观运动动能总和。 - 温度越高，粒子平均动能越大。 - 有温差时，热能会以“热量”的形式传递。
electrical potential energy
EN: Electrical potential energy is stored energy due to separated electric charges (electric potential difference/voltage). - A battery stores electrical potential energy and can transfer it to a circuit. - In a circuit it can transform into other forms (light, thermal, sound, motion).
中文：电势能是由于电荷分离而储存的能量（与电势差/电压有关）。 - 电池储存电势能，并可把能量传递到电路中。 - 在电路中可转化为光、热、声或机械运动等其他形式。
electrical kinetic energy
EN: Electrical kinetic energy refers to the energy associated with moving electric charges (electric current). - When charges move through a device, the energy can transform into light, heat, or motion.
中文：电荷运动（电流）所携带的能量可理解为“电的动能”。 - 电流通过用电器时，能量可以转化为光、热或机械运动等。
chemical potential energy
EN: Chemical potential energy is stored in chemical bonds. - Fuels, food, and batteries store chemical potential energy. - During chemical reactions it can transform into thermal, radiant (light), electrical, and mechanical energy.
中文：化学势能是储存在化学键中的能量。 - 燃料、食物、电池都储存化学势能。 - 化学反应中它可转化为热能、光（辐射）能、电能、机械能等。
gravitational potential energy
EN: Gravitational potential energy (GPE) is energy stored because of height in a gravitational field. - It depends on mass, gravitational field strength (g), and change in height. - Near Earth: GPE = m g Δh (relative to a chosen reference level).
中文：重力势能（GPE）是物体由于处在重力场中的高度而具有的能量。 - 与质量、重力加速度 g，以及高度变化 Δh 有关。 - 近地面常用：GPE = m g Δh（相对于所选参考高度）。
mechanical kinetic energy
EN: Mechanical kinetic energy is the kinetic energy of the motion of objects (macroscopic motion you can observe). - It depends on mass and velocity: KE = 1/2 mv^2. - It is different from thermal energy, which is microscopic particle motion.
中文：机械动能（机械运动的动能）是可观察到的物体整体运动所具有的动能。 - 与质量和速度有关：KE = 1/2 mv^2。 - 它不同于热能；热能来自微观粒子的无规则运动。
energy
EN: Energy is the ability to cause change in a system or do work. - Energy appears in different forms (mechanical, thermal, chemical, electrical, radiant, etc.). - Energy can be transferred between a system and its surroundings, or transformed from one form to another. - The SI unit of energy is the joule (J).
中文：能量是使系统发生变化或对物体做功的能力。 - 能量有多种形式（机械、热、化学、电、辐射等）。 - 能量既可以在系统与环境之间传递，也可以在不同形式之间转化。 - 能量的国际单位是焦耳（J）。
system
EN: A system is the part of the universe you choose to study (the object(s) under observation). - The system boundary is defined by you, depending on the question you are trying to answer. - Energy can enter/leave the system, so tracking the system helps you describe energy transfers.
中文：系统是你选择研究的那一部分宇宙（被观察/被分析的对象或对象集合）。 - 系统边界由研究者根据问题来定义，可大可小。 - 能量可以在系统与环境之间传递，因此先定义系统有助于分析能量变化。
potential energy
EN: Potential energy is stored energy due to position or configuration. - It can be transformed into kinetic energy and other forms. - Examples include gravitational, chemical, electrical, and magnetic potential energy.
中文：势能是由于位置或结构/状态而“储存”的能量。 - 势能可以转化为动能以及其他形式的能量。 - 常见类型：重力势能、化学势能、电势能、磁势能等。
kinetic energy
EN: Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Anything that is moving has kinetic energy. - For a moving object, kinetic energy depends on mass and velocity. - In many Grade-10 problems: KE = 1/2 mv^2 (always ≥ 0).
中文：动能是由于运动而具有的能量，任何在运动的物体都有动能。 - 动能与质量和速度有关。 - 常用公式：KE = 1/2 mv^2（动能一定是非负的）。
law of conservation of energy
EN: The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. - Total energy stays constant in an isolated system. - What changes is the form of energy and where it is (system vs. surroundings). - Some transformed energy becomes less useful (often as thermal energy and sound) due to friction and other processes.
中文：能量守恒定律：能量不会凭空产生，也不会凭空消失。 - 对于孤立系统，总能量保持不变。 - 改变的是能量的形式以及能量所在的位置（系统或环境）。 - 由于摩擦等原因，部分能量会转化为较难利用的热能/声能，但总量仍守恒。
surroundings
EN: The surroundings are everything outside the system boundary. - Surroundings can interact with the system by transferring energy (and sometimes matter). - In many problems, you only include the nearby surroundings that actually interact.
中文：环境（周围环境）是系统边界之外的所有事物。 - 环境可以通过能量（有时也包括物质）与系统发生相互作用。 - 解题时通常只考虑与系统有实际相互作用的那部分环境。
Ironically — given that Locke is now considered a major Enlightenment thinker — the Second Treatise was not widely read in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and while many intellectuals saw his theories as important, many others dismissed them
He should have been read about more often because like I said before, he was the best enlightenment thinker that was there.
John Locke was one of the most influential philosophers and political theorists of seventeenth-century England.
I honestly think that Locke was the best Enlightenment thinker that ever came to be. He had great ideas and thoughts and views that in my personal opinion, made him the best there was.
To be right in everything, we ought always to hold that the white which I see, is black, if the Hierarchical Church so decides it, believing that between Christ our Lord, the Bridegroom, and the Church, His Bride, there is the same Spirit which governs and directs us for the salvation of our souls.
This rule is an interesting one to say the least. They got to be right in pretty much everything and that is honestly an insane thing to think about.
He began writing the Spiritual Exercises in 1522 and later founded the Society of Jesus, or Jesuit Order.
What were the Spiritual exercises that he wrote and what was the Society of Jesus?
This idea of our great knowledge opened the way to us for sowing the seed of religion in their minds.
The Japanese were more open to believing the religion of the Jesuits one they explained many other scientific wonders to them.
All of these sects observe a wonderful silence about the creation of the world and of souls. They all speak of abodes of the virtuous and of the wicked; but not one gives any explanation of the nature of the place assigned to the good, nor by whose power it is that the souls of the wicked are cast down to hell.
The Japanese did not believe they had any one creator or higher power presiding over them.
And they say women are as badly off if they neglect the five precepts. For they say that each woman, on account of her monthly courses, is covered with more sins than all men put together, and that thus so foul a creature can hardly be saved. They go on to say that there is some hope even for women of escaping from the prison of hell, if they give a great deal more than the men to the bonzes.
It is so crazy how inferior women were seen back then, and simply due to their nature and things beyond their control, they were doomed to go to hell.
They prize and honour all that has to do with war, and all such things, and there is nothing of which they are so proud as of weapons adorned with gold and silver.
It seems that the Japanese were always prepared for a fight.
Many of these rules are rejections of “evangelical” (Protestant) theological positions as well as the recent moral failings of the medieval Church.
Ignatius thought that a lot of the Protestant rules should be changed.
For Ignatius, the battle between God and the Devil is an interior struggle for the soul of the believer.
Ignatius seems to have a similar mindset to Martin Luther in that he believes the struggles of sin are internal.
On May 25, 1521, the Diet of Worms issued the Edict of Worms, declaring Luther a heretic and an outlaw.
What was the Edict of Worms?
Martin Luther’s Ninety-five Theses called for religious reform and unintentionally sparked a powder keg that led to the Protestant Reformation, the sixteenth-century movement that rejected many of the teachings of Catholicism.
I really wonder why he had ninety-five Theses. That is a big number of Theses to have and if he was still here today, I would ask him why he had so many
Luther maintains that when people die, they are released from all earthly penalties as embodied in canon law. The penalty of purgatory is imposed not by earthly law but by the person’s own fear, even despair, brought about by
Luther does not think that purgatory is a real thing that all people must face when they die.
According to this view, salvation in heaven is an unconditional gift of God’s love and grace. A person receives it through faith alone and acceptance of Jesus Christ as the source of salvation; it cannot be “earned” through the performance of good works, for that would imply that a well-behaved, charitable atheist could be admitted to heaven.
I really like this passage because I am a Christian myself, and I completely agree with Luther. The old ways of thinking were unachievable and unrealistic. No one can ever earn their way into Heaven or be worthy of the ultimate sacrifice Jesus made.
Religious wars erupted that were not to cease until the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648.
When Luther made his 95 theses, I wonder if he could have predicted the outcome that would have.
One traditional arrangement that enlightened thinkers usually did not question was male domination.
Why did the enlightened thinkers not question male domination? that seems to be a key issue in today's world and it is shocking that back then, they did not question it/
Although some were priests or monks themselves, enlightened thinkers also questioned the moral ideas of Christianity.
why did they question the ideas of Christianity?
succour
assistance and support in times of hardship and distress