Tres condiciones para un campo profesional:

1. Un cuerpo de conceptos, imágenes y una forma particular de hacer preguntas.
2. Existencia de asociaciones, publicaciones y departamentos que impartan la disciplina
3. Que exista un campo de acción en el que a los egresados de las escuelas les les pague por lo que hacen

Periodos de la historia de la geografía Clasico: Hasta 1859

this is awesome

Sociotemporal reactions/responses/concepts have deep historical roots and intercultural relationships.

Current ways of thinking about time continue to be significantly influenced by post-industrial socio-economic constructs, like clock-time, labor efficiencies (speed), and value metaphors (money, attention, thrift).

joe shaw sponsors Cherokee County Heritage

I'm curious why the organizers chose 1836 as the end date for this symposium. Any thoughts?

The Tuskegee news made a suggestion to erect a statue of major w. w. screws, an editor and soldier.

editor of tuskegee news chaired committee that erected a monument for major screws

earliest columnists included George Washington Carver and Booker T. Washington

I disagree with this statement. It is important to acknowledge the long-standing tradition of libraries themselves and their place in society before Christianity. Libraries were also often housed in religious spaces (such as the Mouseion in Alexandria), and people filling social roles that would evolve into the modern librarians have existed since the Sumerians, and there were people filling these roles in Western societies in the Classical world.

Factual history of the act

Related judgments and precedents

History of minimum wages act

Quadrille, according to David Parlett was a wildly popular card game of the period. "A notable characteristic of Quadrille is that it was always more popular with women than with men." The pool is the main stake of each round, like the collected bets in poker.

Historic Card Games described by David Parlett

Darcy’s income was more than 300 times as much the average per capita income of his time. Translated into today’s currency, Mr. Darcy would have an annual income of over $300,000 (http://www.jasna.org/persuasions/printed/number12/heldman.htm).

Women learned specific skills to make themselves more desirable to potential suitors. The accomplished woman read appropriate books and was knowledgeable in math, science, French, social science, music, art, dance, and needlework. Women were expected to socialize well and serve the family with skills that would not challenge her husband (http://randombitsoffascination.com/2014/11/04/accomplished-lady/).

"A type of light four-wheeled open carriage, usually drawn by a pair of horses, and having one or two seats facing forward" (OED).

Image of a light phaeton (Two Nerdy History Girls).

"A light two-wheeled one-horse carriage" (OED).

Image of a Standhope-style gig (Wikipedia).

“A small flat piece of bone or ivory used instead of money or for keeping account in games of chance; sometimes made in the form of a fish” (OED).

Fish made from ivory (Austenonly.com):

Other shapes, made of mother-of-pearl (Austenonly.com):

This paragraph is written right after the paragraph where it mentions that Mrs. Gardiner is an "intelligent, elegant woman", which is interesting because it goes directly to the role she has to play as a woman. Mrs. Gardiner talking about the latest fashions suggests her social ranking as well since women of upper class were the ones who mostly experienced changing fashion and middle class women wore the same outfits (Life for Women in 18th Century). The change of topic in the paragraphs also ignores her intelligence and instead shows her focusing on topics she should care about as a woman because that was her role.

It's well known that men had an advantage of getting a proper education which explains Mr. Gardiner's intelligence. This paragraph shows that Mrs. Gardiner was "amiable, intelligent" which shows that she had some form of an education. For women, getting an education was different than men because not all females got an education. According to the article, "Life for Women in 18th Century", if women got an education, it is usually because they were wealthy and were able to go to boarding school. Some women, not everyone, of lower class learned basic reading and writing skills. Although this doesn't mention her background and what exactly it means by "intelligent", it makes me wonder which social class she was raised in and if she really did get education.

Mrs. Bennet is so upset with Elizabeth not accepting the proposal because in the late 18th century getting married was important for young ladies, for future economic concerns, especially for those women who wouldn't be left anything after their father's death (Maurer, Courtship and Marriage).

The 1995 BBC Pride and Prejudice television adaption used the historical Edgcote House as Netherfield. "Edgcote House, located in southwest Northamptonshire, is the setting for Mr. Charles Bingley’s leased estate. The building was built in the 18th century, and was at one time owned by Anne of Cleves, who was Henry VIII’s fourth wife, and one who was actually allowed to keep her head!" (https://austenauthors.net/a-tour-of-estate-houses-used-in-pride-and-prejudice/)

BBC recreates what it would have been like at the Pride and Prejudice ball. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=63lLJFBiV_M

The Boulanger was the closing dance at a ball, in which couples would align in a circle, turning dancers and their partners, and then repeated the dance in the opposite direction (https://www.yorkregencydancers.com/regency-dance.html). Below is a depiction of the dance. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nuSa5JLUAAY

Assemblies refers to social events that were held in local Assembly Rooms for the public. They were often balls, as in this case. The Assembly Rooms were large public spaces built for such an occasion.

A chaise and four is a small carriage pulled by two to four horses with two to four wheels

The history of an object is very important when considering the culture of it. Knowing the history and production will connect to many ideas and thoughts of the creator.

In order for open education to be more than a movement, it feels like we should be consciously moving in this direction - to define a canonical set of resources that are foundational to the field in order to help orient others and further define ourselves as a field/discipline. Because, as we have seen with MOOC's, if we do not do it, then others will do it for us.

Being a clergymen as a living meant a guaranteed income and home for the lifetime of the clergyman lucky enough to be appointed to one. Since the incumbent did not receive a wage or sully his hands with works per se, it was considered a gentlemanly profession and many younger sons of gentlemen pursued the church as their career."

(Grace, Maria. Vicars, Curates, and Church Livings. Random Bits of Fascination. Web.)

"Emerge; become known." (OED).

In the 18th century, dinner was the main meal of the day and it was especially eventful if there were guests invited. The number of courses often changed but essentially each course would offer something different, one might be a soup and the next a meat. Based off of the Bennet's status they probably would have eaten cheaper meat like mutton (Porter, 18th- Century Food).

Until the the Married Women's Property Act of 1882, women could not have this privilege—and even then, you had to be married and have your husband's name! Mrs. Bennet has every right to fear the possibility that Charlotte and Mr. Collins could threaten the Bennet family and kick them out of their home.

According to and article titled Courting the Victorian Women, "Courtship was considered more a career move than a romantic interlude for young men, as all of a woman's property reverted to him upon marriage". Mr. Bingley traveling is discussed as everyone's business, and "reports" are updated of his whereabouts. It's not that the town where the Bennet's live is gossipy, but rather so many young women are hoping to marry Mr. Bingley and wait for the opportunity to run into him conveniently, or can know how many times he has gone to see Jane Bennet etc.

“A call should be returned with a call, a card with a card, within one week, or at the most, ten days.” (Hoppe "Calling Cards and the Etiquette of Paying Calls")

Ten thousand pounds is somewhere around 1,090,000 GBP adjusted for inflation from 1800. However, inflation rates vary; so this number is approximate ("Historical UK Inflation Rates Calculator").

For context: Miss Bingley, and Mrs. Hurst have twenty thousand pounds (ch. 4). Miss Darcy is worth thirty thousand (ch. 35). The Bennet sisters are splitting their mother's fortune of five thousand pounds (ch. 50).

“To settle (land, an estate, etc.) on a number of persons in succession, so that it cannot be bequeathed at pleasure by any one possessor” (OED).

Also spelled casino; "a card game for two to four people" (Pool, What Jane Austen Ate…, 281).

"A card game played by four people with forty cards that was the fashionable predecessor of whist" (Pool, What Jane Austen Ate…, 360).

From “to come out”—when a young woman formally enters adult society, usually at 17 or 18, and is eligible for marriage (Pool, What Jane Austen Ate…, 288).

Elizabeth, although loathe to dance with Mr. Collins, could not reject him. Unless she had already accepted a dance offer, it was considered rude for a lady to reject a man when he asked to dance, and in doing so, etiquette would force her to reject all other offers made to her for that dance. (John Mullan, The Balls in the Novels of Jane Austen) The Balls in the Novels of Jane Austen

"A room used for dining or eating supper. Now rare." (OED)

The description of societies as being polished is referring to them as being "refined, cultured, or elegant"(OED).

“A tune, a melody; a piece of music in which a single melodic line predominates, and which has little or no distinctive accompaniment”(OED).

"A woman's undercoat or under-tunic, analogous to the male petticoat, often padded and worn showing beneath an open gown." (OED)

Cheapside- more like a marketplace than a street: up to 62 feet wide but with very narrow exits at each end. It is the main shopping centre of the City of London for the past 200 years.

Used in the booklet on Pg 17 as: "Asking for hafta is illegal. Even the Supreme Court lamented this injustice. This is what the court said: 'Street Vendors are harassed a lot and are constantly victimized by the officials of local authorities, the police etc. who regularly target them for extra income and treat them with extreme contempt. Perhaps these minions in the administration have not understood the meaning of the term 'dignity' enshrined in the preamble of the constitution."

Used in the booklet on Pg 13 along with some background into how the act came about as: "There was no law specifically for street vendors," said Neela. "Several unions protested for a long time. First, a national level policy was launched in 2009. The in 2013, an important case was fought in the supreme court by Maharashtra Ekta Hawkers Union. It was a union of people like you and me. And in the 2014, the Street Vendors Act of 2014 became a new law. The law says street vending is your right."

The Seven Sleepers are a group of children who hide in a cave and emerge over 200 years later, still alive.

2010s: Bespoke/Craft

Key themes: Handmade, refurbished, industrial, raw

With the rise of Etsy and the interest in craftsmanship, the trends of today are centered on the handmade and the authentic. Revitalizing, renewing, and reusing vintage pieces is the new norm. An eclectic décor, as long as everything is well-made and authentic, is in fashion

2000s: Green/Sustainable

Key themes: Reduced carbon emissions, recycled wood, paper, steel/natural colors, up-cycling

At the turn of the Millennium, consumers became more environmentally conscious and sought out designers that minimized the negative environmental impact. Sustainable architecture and automotive design became part of the norm, using a conscious approach to energy and conservation.

1990s: Minimalism

Key themes: Beige, overstuffed furniture, tech-centric/durable

The overload, ornamentation, and audaciousness of the ’80s forced the ’90s consumer to retreat into a more minimalistic and basic style: interiors and objects were toned down, minimal, and soothing.

1980s: Memphis/Postmodernism

Key themes: Graphic primary triad patterns, grids, triangles, squiggles/metal, gold, enamel

Postmodernism began as an international style in the 1950s but didn’t become a full-blown movement until the late-1970s. The style was a reaction to the saturation of Modernism in design—it was said to be heralded by the return of “wit, ornament, and reference” to architecture. The identifying concepts of the trend are where styles collide, colors and materials follow no set guidelines, and form is created for its own sake, not for function. The era’s opulence, over-indulgence, and overpriced designs are apparent in architecture, automotive design, and product design.

Memphis was a very particular sect of Postmodernism. The crux of the trend was to melt styles, shapes, colors, and materials in a way that was unencumbered by design rules.

1970s: Back-to-Nature/Hippie

Key themes: Craft revival, terracotta, wood/orange, gold, avocado green

The ’70s were a time of rejection and rebirth for the socially conscious. The over-materialism and consumerism of decades prior positioned the era as a time to get back to nature and to embrace the environment. The social ideals of the day manifested themselves in terms of design through a crafts revival and a heightened use of natural colors and materials.

1960s: Atomic Age/Space Age

Key themes: Shag rugs, Lucite, tie-dye, paisley

Sixties style was a mix of organic and futuristic design, more commonly known as Atomic Age or Space Age design. The themes of atomic science and the space races of the ’60s influenced all areas of design, from architecture to graphic design. Futuristic influences suggested an optimistic trajectory for society and the everyday consumer. New-age materials and production techniques were used to create furniture and solidified America as a powerhouse innovator of the time.

1950s: Functionalism/Modernism

Key themes: Ceramics, pastel pink, teal, yellow, blue, Scandinavian Design, new appliances

Functionalism was born from the principle that objects should be designed based on their purposes. In the 1950s, with the rise of mass-produced objects, consumers were purchasing more than ever. With the influence of megastar designers like Norman Bel Geddes and Raymond Lowey, these mass-produced items were designed in the Functional style: streamlined and clean, promoting their efficiency.

1940s: Organic

Key themes: Chrome, Formica, vinyl

Organic design is inspired by organic, flowing natural forms, undulating lines, and dynamic curves. The style was made popular by Modernist designers in the 1940s, including the Eames' molded plywood chair. With the increased popularity of mass-produced items, various industries were designing items with planned obsolescence in mind.

1900s: Arts & Crafts

Key themes: Staying connected to nature, anti-mass-production, craftsmanship

The Arts & Crafts movement touched multiple areas of design, including architecture, product design, and decorative and fine arts. The main concept behind the movement was the notion of authenticity and to work without any division of labor rather than work without any sort of machinery. The style utilized simple forms melded with medieval, romantic, or folk styles of decoration. In a cultural light, the movement advocated economic and social reform through its anti-industrial over-tones.

1910s: Art Nouveau

Key themes: Fluid shapes, organic subject matter, ornate flourishes, rich colors

Although not as long-lasting as the Arts & Crafts moment, Art Nouveau was heavily influenced by the craftsmanship style, as well as Romanticism and Symbolism. The origin of the name Art Nouveau comes from an interior design gallery in Paris—Maison de l’Art Nouveau—that was an outlet for decorative creations by American Louis Comfort Tiffany, creator of the iconic Tiffany lamps. American architect Louis Henry Sullivan was also a proprietor of Art Nouveau; he frequently used plantlike Art Nouveau ironwork to decorate his buildings.

1920s: Art Deco

Key themes: Tubular steel, geometric patterns, mirrored surfaces

Art Deco first appeared in France after World War I. The movement made its way to the United States during the 1920s and influenced everything from fashion to architecture. In the U.S., the style made its way coast-to-coast from Miami Beach to Los Angeles. Some of today’s most iconic buildings were created in the Art Deco style, including Rockefeller Center in New York City.

1930s: International Style

Key themes: Geometry, light, anti-ornamentation, openness, glass and steel

International Style honors simple, honest, and clear design. In the United States, many architects, like Louis Sullivan, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Irving Gill, practiced this design. Their buildings embodied many of the requirements of the movement: rectilinear forms, light, taut plane surfaces, anti-ornamentation, open interior spaces, cantilever construction. Usually, the International Style buildings and designs would include glass, steel, and reinforced concrete. The trend can also be seen in the anti-ornamentation and aerodynamic styling of the cars during the era.

Brief History of the Internet has been in my required readings for Sociology of Cyberspace.

History currently dominates the best seller list. Is this just a fad? Or does it show a real and popular interest in the subject?

Alan Levine’s comment also needs to be kept for posterity:

I so appreciate the framing of this history for the oMOOC (Original) as "courses of lectures" which seems not focused on the lectures but the discussions generated. And thanks for the mention of the ds106 assignment bank (a concept I seem to suggest in every project) but I must make a small historical credit. Grant Potter was definitely part of the foundation, but his great contribution was DS106 Radio. The person who credit for the Assignment Bank must go to is Martha Burtis who did this and more for co-creating DS106, but she's often invisible in the Shadow of Groom. I did the archeology on the Assignment Bank history: http://cogdogblog.com/2016/10/ds106-history-details/ I dream that someone would fund you to roll out the model described, maybe it's a dMOOC (Downsian) not that it would likely overtake the xMOOC Hype Train (which all its is shiny conductors have jumped off the train, i just keeps rolling through burgs like EdSurge).

How times have changed.

Reminds me of this historian’s talk at Pint of Science Montreal 2015. (Sadly, not finding online traces of the event apart from my own section.)

This would seem like a no brainer to me. We should demand it of journalists and public intellectuals.

Trading is very important. The West advantage over China in the past.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=06x8Wf2r2Mc

a footnote about history. important.

such a dense para outlining the competing elements

tech-influence

the colonial past

when Research is bloody

That would make this the first fantasy novel by a long run, way before George MacDonald. Is this a correct classification?

p. 77 Description of Rochdale in 1967 (i.e. before the tower went up)

At the moment there are some 30 full-time members of the college, who come from all over North America and range from Ph.D.'s to high school dropouts. They are much younger than a cross-section of the university, but somewhat older than a cross-section of undergraduates. There are another 50-200 part-time participants, mostly students or teachers at degree-granting institutions in Toronto. We occupy six rented houses this year; next fall we'll move into an 18-storey building which is under construction at the corner of Huron and Bloor. It will house 850 residents, who will own and operate the building cooperatively; it will also become a focal point for the college's external members. It is up to each member to determine the extent, form, and content of his participation in the college's educational life--including, in a number of cases, none at all.

Military Industrial Complex:

1. Eisenhower has seen the consequences of this intersection of military power and his own "new look" policy

Presidential speeches can be measured by how long we talk about them. Still one of the most referenced presidential speeches ever given.

IRAN — Mohammed Mossafegh (1951–1954)

• First military Coup during CIA golden age
• US tells Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (1941–1979) that they will take over the country unless he overthrows Mossafegh.
• For 20+ years we supported a dictator who murdered his own people
• Any nation state has the option to buy out foreign companies

Guatemala — Jacobo Arbenz Guzman (1951–1954)

• Democratically elected leader, called for Progressive Reform (second President to do so)
• Nationalizing land (US decided it looked like Communism)
• Guzman runs into problems with the United Fruit Company, who had been cheating on their taxes, undervaluing their land prices. Government seeks to purchase land to nationalize it, and wants to buy it for the price that the UFC valued their land for.
• UFC and US Government set up a military Coup. Using radio broadcast propaganda, pretending that an army is ravaging the countryside. Guzman believes the propaganda and flees. We set up a dictator.

Early US Wars

During WWI "panes" were visors of the gas mask that were used during war. Recall that this war was the introduction of chemical warfare; there was a lack of preparation in terms of understanding what exactly the gas was capable of doing to a human. Captain A.J. Waugh (as cited in Jones, 2014) expressed, “uncontrolled anxiety during a gas attack could cause men to tear off their protective masks” which would result in agonizing pain or death; however, the goal of chemical warfare was to instill fear and destroy the enemy.

Here we have a picture from WWI capturing a terrifying wave of gas being released. You can see how the fumes look as though they resemble waves of the ocean about to swallow up the soldiers; the words of the speaker coming alive when he states "I saw him drowning."

WWI marked the introduction of chemical warfare which in return created complete terror and pandemonium; soldiers were not prepared for the effects of chemical warfare. As Jones indicates, the use of chemical warfare was to “terrorize the enemy and make their troops temporarily lose their minds.” Alexander Watson also claimed in his study (as cited in Jones, 2014) “gas created uncertainty: unlike shrapnel, it killed from the inside, eroding a soldier’s sense of control, while raising the terrifying fear of being suffocated." Going off the “created uncertainty” we have the use of "ecstasy" which encompasses a trance-like state; coinciding with the idea of being "drunk with fatigue" (see above annotation) from the effects of the gas. The delayed reactions of the soldiers against the gas would result in a behavior of "fumbling." The gas was designed to attack the nervous system; accelerating the deterioration of the body and mind.

With the introduction and evolution of chemical weapons used in this war (WWI); human bodies were no match for the damage these weapons were designed to inflict. Leading into the imagery of soldiers physically deteriorating when using phrases such as "bent double," "coughing like hags," and "men marched asleep;" would not lead one to believe that war is “sweet and fitting” in any capacity. With the use of the word “beggars” our minds may envision the effects of poverty and desperation which war seems to produce, and in this sense, we are given language expressing the overwhelming misery and accelerated age progression with the use of “old.” These descriptions challenge the assumptions the mind tends to gravitate towards when picturing what it means to "die for ones country."

I was surprised to see that Hebrew was on the course list. At this point in time, the American Jewish population was very, very small. I suspect this would have been taught in the context of history, relating to the bible, as the old testament was written in biblical/classical Hebrew. From what I know about Western education historically, many of the "humanities" type subjects were very interdisciplinary, so I could understand religion and history being incorporated into this course.

Calling people out using the constructionist ideals — The American government is not living up to their high ideals.

Poetry as a way to express frustration when there is no way to go up against actual US military power. A weapon of the weak; a powerful message.

can't sort my profile by creation date?

This book is not about religion, although I talk about religion. It's about religious tolerance and the fight for human rights; the first battlefront in public discourse about human rights.

Freedom of religion was the first base upon which other understandings of freedom have been built upon.

"Not knowing is an obstacle to my imagination" RE: his dedication to narratives that could have taken place within the political climate of the day.

This is the story of 16th century Europe, and the political earthquake that was protestantism. The overarching historical narrative unfolds around the lives of fictional characters who might have lived in this historic period.

Follett's literary reenactment explores the intricacies of the Protestant Reformation through a cast of strategically diverse characters, whose stories span across multiple continents, nations, and cities. Each character is an important harbinger of larger historical trends. Within the masterfully established geo-political reality, each of their decisions serve to gradually reveal their distinct personalities and temperaments, belief systems and ideologies, and cultural identities.

Reminiscent of our current geo-political climate. The extended cycles of history.

Think: Daenerys Targaryen

This document informs the way Americans have seen themselves since the beginning of the twentieth century.

Interventions are presented as idealistically noble and undeniably moralistic. Instead of recognizing the complexities and consequences of intervention, we continue to propagate intervention as an ideological imperative

We take on the domestic issues of other nations without being invited to take part. We identify as the prevailer of freedom and democracy when these are just ideals that we aspire to, sometimes missing the mark just as terribly as the nations we seek to guide and coerce.

They are a people perpetually in flux; their reality defined by an oppressive dictator and his antagonistic relationship with the United States.

Everywhere you look at the moment, you see people projecting their fantasies back into history, rather than allowing the past to be different from the present. This comes from people across the political spectrum, but what they all have in common is that they only really care about history as far as it serves modern political goals. They're only interested in the past to the extent that it supports their modern prejudices, whatever those happen to be

Origins of government funding of science

Awesome archeological find!

On the narrowing of COmputing and the Humanities

More here: https://thaqafamagazine.com/2014/09/11/omar-mukhtar-libya-italy/

This saying refers to a home in the eighteenth or nineteenth century that had elegant furniture throughout the home; and elegant dishes and dinnerware. The servants lived in brand new liveries. (janeaustens world)

According to the OED, rubber refers to "A set of games (usually three or five), the last of which is played to decide between the opponents when each has won an equal number; (hence) the winning of more than half the individual games by one side" (OED).

This phrase altogether indicates that Lady Middleton was partaking in a card game upon hearing the news of Marianne.

"The name of a street in central London (running between St James's Street and Haymarket) which developed from an alley [in the 17th century] in which the game of pall-mall was played"(OED). The game: players attempt to get wooden ball with a mallet down the alley and through a raised iron ring in as few strokes possible. Smith’s New Map of London, 1809, showing the Palace between the Mall and Pall Mall

"A carriage with a half-head behind which can be raised or let down at pleasure, having a seat in front for the driver, and seats inside for two couples to sit facing each other" (OED).

For a young, unmarried woman such as Marianne to correspond with an unmarried man was considered extremely improper. In fact, for a single woman to initiate such correspondence would be considered scandalous, thereby tarnishing her virtue and reputation as an eligible bridal candidate. Only if they were engaged to each other would this practice be looked upon favorably; in fact, it might be necessary and expected. If they were not engaged, and especially not to each other, open correspondence would indicate a lack of morals in the woman, in that society would assume the young woman to be the man's mistress. Brandon follows this statement by extrapolating that Marianne and Willoughby would soon be married, since that would be the only alternative so her social reputation would not suffer.

"Calling cards became popular at the end of the 18th century and bore the visitor's name, title and residence." (Grace, Maria. "Morning Calls and Formal Visits: Socializing in the Regency Era" English Historical Fiction Authors, http://englishhistoryauthors.blogspot.com/2013/08/morning-calls-and-formal-visits.html . Accessed 24 April 2017.) The purpose of the calling card that Willoughby leaves behind at Mrs. Jennings' residence serves to inform her, as the mistress of the house, of his presence in London. As her acquaintance, it would have been considered rude of him not to do so.

In the early 19th Century, a journey from Norland, Sussex (the fictional home of the Dashwood's) to London was a three-day trip. Travel was not safe; Marianne was also at courting age and needed a chaperone. Single women during this period of history had to have chaperones because they could not ever be alone with a man, unless it was for business.(ProQuest, Jane Austen, Lambdin, 2000).

"The London post (1801-1839) for conveyance of letters, etc. at an ordinary charge of twopence each" (OED).

"An attendant or foot servant; one employed to run ahead of or alongside a coach, carriage" (OED).

"The flesh of a calf as an article of diet. A calf...as killed for food or intended for this purpose. Now rare. Chiefly in names of dishes. Made from veal, as veal pie, veal broth, veal cutlet, veal gravy" (OED).

Kind of the point of this class

To "take orders" means to ordain as a clergyman to the Anglican Church. In the Regency era, many young gentlemen looked to the church as a professional option, especially younger sons who had no other inheritance or estate.

Edward only has 2,000 pounds to his name and if converted in today's pounds it would be 120,558.77 pounds. It would be enough for a year to live comfortably, but not lavishly enough. It would not be enough for economic security in a marriage.

At this time it was not unusual for women to go to London or other urban settings for access to different experiences. They offered many opportunities for new social interaction and there is ample evidence of women traveling to London and partaking of its many social activities. There were also many opportunities of new experiences for pleasure and excitement, some through social interaction. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/trail/victorian_britain/women_out/urban_life_04.shtml

Short for 'post-chaise', defined as ""a horse-drawn, usually four-wheeled carriage (in Britain usually having a closed body, the driver or postilion riding on one of the horses) used for carrying mail and passengers, esp. in the 18th and early 19th centuries"" (OED).

The tradesmen or middle sort are below Gentry and make their money by working. They could have as much or more money than the gentry class in some cases, but their status was always considered as lower.

http://www4.wittenberg.edu/academics/hist/crom/brit/socstruc.html

"A room reserved for reception of company, and to which the ladies withdraw from the dining-room after dinner" (OED).

The drawing-room had feminine decorations compared to the other rooms in a home; which included classically tasteful furnishings and musical instruments" (Drawing rooms, The Regency Town House).

As Florence Hartley notes in her conduct book, "When a child is present in a formal visit or call, he is the first subject in a conversation" (Hartley, The Ladies' Book of Etiquette, and Manual of Politeness, Chapter 16. S.l.: OMNIA VERITAS, 2015).

The fact “Lady Middleton” is referenced without her first name illustrates to the reader that she was married by a man with a title. However, in the novel Pride and Prejudice Lady Catherine de Bourgh is addressed with her first name indicates she was born into nobility.

(The British System of Aristocratic Honorifics, The Republic of Pemberley)

Mrs. Dashwood and her daughters must live on 500 pounds a year which converts to $50,100.00 into today’s revenue<br> (Lawrence H. Officer and Samuel H. Williamson, Computing 'Real Value' Over Time With a Conversion Between U.K. Pounds and U.S. Dollars, 1774 to Present, MeasuringWorth, 2017.).

"In a private house: a sitting room; esp. the main family living room, or the room reserved for entertaining guests" (OED).

"India and the adjacent regions of South-East Asia. In later use usually: the islands of South-East Asia, esp. the Malay Archipelago" (OED).

A term used to designate a " small country residence... adapted to a moderate scale of living" (OED).

The image below is a still from the 1995 film adaptation of Sense and Sensibility showing the building used to represent Barton Cottage.

The comparison between Marianne showing her talents in music and displaying her abilities, and Lady Middleton, who used to play piano before marriage, depicts the importance of “female accomplishments” during this time. Women were to attain certain achievements (drawing, playing music, etc.) to appeal to their male suitors (Hughes, "Gender Roles in the 19th Century,"British Library).

This scene shows Marianne and Margaret's critical views on the physical appearance and age of eligible bachelors. Despite the girls' opinions of Colonel Brandon as an unattractive bachelor, his age as an eligible companion was not uncommon during this period due to his stature in society. According to Shoemaker, "In general, the gap in marriage ages increased higher up the social scale. There was a five-year gap among the London middle-class in the early eighteenth century, which extended to as much as ten [years] among the wealthiest groups, such as merchants, the gentry, and the aristocracy" (Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650-1850, 92).

Said of a woman who determines to gain the affections of a man....Origin: from the French nautical phrase 'mettre le cap sur' - 'to set a course for'... Women commonly wore caps of white linen or muslin in the 18th century. Any woman who was intent on attracting a man would certainly wear her best cap, probably ornamented with lace and ribbons, and set it at the most becoming angle… By the early 19th century the phrase was common enough to have taken on a metaphorical usage. ('Set One's Cap At' - the Meaning and Origin of This Phrase. Phrasefinder.)

"In Jane Austen’s day most people walked to work, town, church, and market square, or to their neighbors. Six miles was not considered an undue distance to travel by foot one way. The gentry were another breed. They either owned their own carriages or hired a public horse cab." (Victorian and Edwardian Horse Cabs by Trevor May, a Book Review, Jane Austen's World)

"The fashionable carriage now is a curricle, and the most elegant of that fort is one built by." Times [London, England] 2 Aug. 1787: 3. The Times Digital Archive. Web. 25 Apr. 2017.

This carriage was deemed to be one of the fashionable ones; this could only shed good light on Willoughby and alludes to his class and his fashion style. It was deemed to be an elegant mode of transportation, which helps contribute to the Dashwoods' impression of Willoughby.

Contrary to what one may conclude upon reading "engagement", in this day and age such term was meant towards a private understanding between two people. Not necessarily pertaining to marriage. As defined by the Oxford English Dictionary, an engagement in this case would be "A formal promise, agreement, undertaking, covenant."

http://www.oed.com.jpllnet.sfsu.edu/view/Entry/62197?redirectedFrom=engagement#eid

In the Regency era, it was common for people to visit private homes and estates. There was a "presumption of access to private houses" (Clarke, "A fine house richly furnished: Pemberley and the visiting of country houses") In this discussion, Elinor is chiding Marianne for breaking one of the cardinal rules of visiting a great house: visiting while the family who owned said house was at home. "If the family were away, [a] housekeeper would feel free to show the house to visitors" but "access [could be] refused because the family were at home" (Clarke). By entering Allenham while Mrs. Smith was at home, Marianne has intruded. The fact that she was also alone with Willoughby, a man who is not a relative of hers, with no supervision from others could cause people to question Marianne's virtue.

"Among family, friends and romantic partners, exchanging a lock of hair was a sign of mutual esteem and deep affection. Upon the death of a loved one, locks of hair were often cut and kept as a way to both honor and remember the dead... [H]air was both an intimately personal souvenir of a specific person and an (almost) everlasting memento." ("Hairwork jewelry" on the Fashion Institute of Design and Merchandising (FIDM) Museum of Los Angeles' blog) Locks of hair were often kept in the form of jewelry, as we see Edward Ferrars wearing later in the novel. Hair jewelry ranged from simpler rings like the one Edward wears to complex necklaces, brooches, and other pieces.

(Image: "Gold and enamel mourning ring with hair of the deceased under glass, c. 1855." from The Victor Mourning Blog) (Image: "Hairwork necklace. 1850-1890. Gift of Andrea Tice. 2008.46.101" from the FIDM Museum Blog)

The term "Christian name" refers to one's first or given name, which was often given at the time of an infant's baptism (Thurston, Catholic Encyclopedia). An excerpt from Etiquette for Ladies, published in Philadelphia in 1840 by Lea & Blanchard, details some specifics on the use of Christian names in different types of company: "In speaking, it is always proper to give the name of Sir, Madam, or Miss... It is equally good [etiquette], when alone with [one's husband], to designate him by his Christian name." The use of a Christian name, or given name, was incredibly intimate and for the most part only meant to be used by family members in private spaces.

In the Regency period, women were not permitted to ride alone, except under very specific circumstances, and were usually expected to be accompanied by a chaperone. This chaperone was often a groom, whose duties also included caring for the horses. "A lady was permitted to drive her own carriage, but only about the town attended by a groom, or by herself on the family estate... It was acceptable to go out riding or driving with a man as long as a groom or other chaperone was in attendance... It was acceptable to go out driving or riding with a man without a chaperone if he was a relative of close family friend" (Kloester, Georgette Heyer's Regency World).

"Named after Guinea in West Africa. A former British gold coin that was first minted in 1663 from gold imported from West Africa...It was replaced by the sovereign from 1817" (OED).

Cottages in 19th Century England were typically two-story buildings with a few bedrooms. https://janeaustensworld.wordpress.com/tag/19th-century-cottages/

The Dashwood women are reduced to living on £500 a year. This is a drastic change from Norland Park, which is assumed to be a substantially larger living. This would carry the Dashwood women from the gentry to the upper middle-class. A cottage is a realistic option for their new economic status, but is definitely a degradation from their former life.

http://web.stanford.edu/~steener/su02/english132/conversions.htm

“England was a very patriarchal society. Not only in the public sphere, but also in the private one as well. Women did not have any power in any portion of the nation, whether it be economic, political, or social. In England there was no law written expressly concerning inheritance other than, that the will or desire of the man of the home or estate will be carried out. This meaning that if the man of the estate wished for his nephew to inherit the land it was to be so. The common practice was that a son or nephew to the head of the family was to inherit all of the assets, because he would be more worthy of the property than a woman.” (Davis, Brooke. Inheritance Laws in the Early 1800s in England, Web)

“Before the nineteenth century, most families were organized according to patriarchal tradition. Household heads owned and controlled the means of production, and their wives and children were obliged to provide the unpaid labor needed to sustain family enterprises. Masters of the household had a legal right to command the obedience of their wives and children—as well as any servants or slaves—and to use corporal punishment to correct disobedience.“ (Ruggles, Steven. Patriarchy, Power, and Pay, Web)

In her conduct book, Letters to Young Ladies on their Entrance into the World (1824), Elizabeth Lanfear warns women not to rush into marriage: "love-matches, at least those which are generally so called, do not always prove the happiest ; and, when entered into rashly, or at an early period of life, before either the taste or the judgement are sufficiently matured, mutual disappointment is too frequently the result" (Lanfear, p. 49). Lanfear is stating the possibility that marriage can lead unhappiness and warns women not to rush into marriage. If Colonel Brandon proposed the idea of marriage to Charlotte to Sir John, Charlotte might have needed Lanfear's advice not to jump into marriage so rashly.

Sir Walter Scott [1771-1832], “Scottish novelist, poet, historian, and biographer who is often considered both the inventor and the greatest practitioner of the historical novel.”

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sir-Walter-Scott-1st-Baronet

William Cowper [1731-1800], “one of the most widely read English poets of his day, whose most characteristic work, as in The Task or the melodious short lyric “The Poplar Trees,” brought a new directness to 18th-century nature poetry.”

https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Cowper

James Thomson [1700-1748], “Scottish poet whose best verse foreshadowed some of the attitudes of the Romantic movement. His poetry also gave expression to the achievements of Newtonian science and to an England reaching toward great political power based on commercial and maritime expansion”

https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Thomson-Scottish-poet-1700-1748

Horse-drawn carriage used in the 18th and 19th centuries; a status symbol of material wealth used by the upper classes.

“Hair jewelry served as a physical demonstration of internal feelings, similar to the idea of sensibility” (Absorption in Austen,On Hair Jewelry). The act of a man carrying a woman's lock of hair is a symbol of love between the two lovers. It is an act of affection as the lock of hair can also represent a woman's beauty and virtue. By gifting a lock of hair a woman is in a way promising herself to her lover, and in return the man carries and protects the lock which is his way of symbolizing that her will protect her virtue.

Refers to William Gilpin who is believed to have first introduced the idea of the aesthetic ideal of the picturesque, first in 1768 in his book Essays on Prints and then later expanded his idea in his travel book Observations on the River Wye, and Several Parts of South Wales, etc. Relative Chiefly to Picturesque Beauty; made in the Summer of the Year 1770.(Oxford Dictionary of National Biography)

“William Shakespeare (1564-1616) wrote Hamlet c. 1599-1601. In Austen’s time, Hamlet was a well-known play.”

Here Berger is making a reference to the history of Indigenous peoples in Canada and how they have been affected through the degradation of nature around them. The history of white people bringing disease and other hardships to indigenous people is a well documented one. But the less talked about part is how modern technologies affect on the environment has affected them. Andrew Stuhl writes, "the number of reindeer in Barrow- the largest town in the region with a population of 1,200 Inuit- had dropped from an estimated 35,000 in 1935 to 5,000 in 1940." This dramatic decrease in reindeer population had a lasting effect on the Inuit population as they eventually had to negotiate with the Canadian government to get reindeer herds as a means of subsistence. As technology advanced, over fishing and whaling practices in the 1980s and 1990s drove some species of fish to near extirpation from the Arctic. Furthermore climate change is having a profound effect on indigenous populations in the more recent past. The raise of temperature is creating less sea ice and making the migrating patterns of whales and caribou less predictable. This causes it to be more difficult for Inuit hunters to track and capture their food. All of these things put together shows how white people's affect on the environment has made life harder for the indigenous populations of the Arctic. Ford, James D.1, james.ford@mcgill.ca. "Indigenous Health and Climate Change." American Journal Of Public Health 102, no. 7 (July 2012): 1260-1266. Social Sciences Full Text (H.W. Wilson), EBSCOhost (accessed May 8, 2017). Stuhl, Andrew. Unfreezing the Arctic science, colonialism, and the transformation of Inuit lands. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2016.

Berger uses the term "non consuming use" to define activities in the wilderness that do not have a lasting impact on nature. He talks about how these non consuming acts are practiced by the Native People and some recreational activities. He contrasts this with the idea that commercial industry exploits the wilderness in a way that permanently affects it. An interesting example to look at here is commercial hunting and fishing practices in the North compared to recreational and indigenous ones. Commercial hunting and fishing operations does not have a decorated history in the Arctic. Whaling practices have led to the collapse of the North Atlantic Right whale which was at one point considered to be the most abundant species in the Arctic. As of today "it is arguably the most threatened large cetacean in the Atlantic Ocean, if not the world, with an estimated minimum population size of 313 animals." This dramatic decrease in population is not only seen in whales but also in many common fish species in the area as well. In 1992 there was a moratorium put on cod fishing in Canada because the population was so over harvested that there was only a few schools left in the ocean. Both of these situation brought a lot of economic hard ship to fishing regions in Canada that relied on these populations for work. The irony in this situation comes from how the large scale fishing operations caused a ban for indigenous populations too even for their comparatively miniscule action.

Parsons, E.C.M., J. Patrick Rice, and Laleh Sadeghi. "Awareness of whale conservation status and whaling policy in the US--a preliminary study on American Youth." Anthrozoos 23, no. 2 (2010): 119+. Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources (accessed May 8, 2017).

In this section, Berger talks about how he believes that there should be an amendment to allow for the creation of wilderness parks. The Berger Inquiry was first published in 1977 and by "1988 amendments also enabled the Governor in Council to give legal recognition to wilderness zones within parks, heightening the level of protection on these lands by prohibiting any activities that are 'likely to impair the wilderness character of the area." The National Parks Act has been an evolving document and has changed throughout its history. The first national park in Canada was established in 1885 which was Banff National Park but the National Parks Act was not passed until 1930. This act allowed for Canadian Parliament to create designated areas as national parks where industrial development and activities like hunting would be restricted. As of 2000 there was over 68,327,742 hectares of land designated as a national parks which is about 6.84 of the land in Canada. While this is a good percentage, there has been a push to add more national parks in different areas of the country. There was a proposal to add over 15,000 square kilometers and establish five new regions to the national marine conservation areas. In general, Canadians care about their national parks and "this significance has been reflected in the additions to the amount of area protected and changes to legislation and policy over the last decade." Dearden, Philip, and Jessica Dempsey. "Protected areas in Canada: decade of change." Canadian Geographer 48, no. 2 (July 20, 2004): 225-239. Social Sciences Full Text (H.W. Wilson), EBSCOhost (accessed May 8, 2017).

This idea has been an overarching theme in western society for the last half century but the roots of this problem goes back further than that. Since the industrial revolution, Americans have developed the reputation as the most wasteful people and rightfully so. Berger refers to the early days of frontier settlement in North America where there was flagrant misuse of natural resources. It is easy to think of examples of this but one that stands out above the rest was the extermination of the American Buffalo in the Great Plains. Ranchers and hunters were just killing these animals and leaving the corpses out in the fields. Other examples of this is the different mining practices that were used throughout North America. This includes surface mining which is a very intrusive process that leaves the entire area barren and destroyed. In many areas, "because of [surface] mining, the environment has been very bad, and destroyed the balance of the ecology, the stability of the water level and the water quality around the mine for long term." Fortunately, there has been a much stronger movement through sustainable practices within the new generation. Earth Day was created in 1970 to bring awareness to the environment and conservation efforts. In Vancouver, there is a yearly march and celebration led by high school students to help raise awareness of issues facing our planet like climate change and pollution. One student says "without this Earth, without the stuff it provides for us, and if we don't do something about it, it's going to be too late in the future." "Vancouver youth help raise awareness about climate change." Xinhua News Agency, April 27, 2015. Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources (accessed May 8, 2017).

Yi, Pan, Liu Yang, Yang Min, WangLinyan, Yang Shuangchun, and Zhang Jinhui. "The environmental impact assessments of oil shale in in-situ mining and surface mining." International Journal of Applied Environmental Sciences 7, no. 4 (2012): 403+. Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources (accessed May 8, 2017).

Sigurd Olson was a writer in the 20th century who focused on nature and how humans interact with nature. Olson grew up in Minnesota and lived there most of his life where he found his love of nature by traveling to different parts of the state. Olson played a big role in drafting the Wilderness Act of 1964 passed. He was responsible for establishing a few national parks including Voyageurs National Park in northern Minnesota, Alaska's Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, and Point Reyes National Seashore in California. Olson also held the position of President of the Wilderness Society and National Parks Association at different times in his life. With all of the work he did, Olson was a well known figure in the conservationist and environmentalist field. Olson wrote many books about the wilderness of different places he traveled and many of them focused on places in the northern states of the US. Olson had a simplistic view of nature as he felt "the wilderness offers simplicity and brings people closer to nature. It is also a place where a person can find a renewed sense of identity." Olson's legacy is continued by his preservation work and the many places he was able to establish wilderness protection laws. In 1978 Olson was able to get full wilderness status granted to the Boundary Waters Canoe Area which was the area he grew up near.

"Sigurd Olson, a Writer And Environmentalist." The New York Times. January 14, 1982. Accessed May 07, 2017. http://www.nytimes.com/1982/01/15/obituaries/sigurd-olson-a-writer-and-environmentalist.html. Nelson, Michael. "Wilderness." In Encyclopedia of Environmental Ethics and Philosophy, edited by J. Callicott and Robert Frodeman, 402-405. Vol. 2. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2009. Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources (accessed May 7, 2017).

Wilderness is a very vague term that get used a lot in this chapter. Berger uses the definition which is “A wilderness, in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominate the landscape, is hereby recognized as an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain.” This definition covers the technical and legal definition of wilderness, but wilderness has many meanings that has changed over time. Before modern technology, the wilderness was a place that was dangerous and unforgiving. Because of this perception of the wild, there was a sense of masculinity to travelling in the through it. Even today this idea manifests in pop culture as shows such a Man vs Wild are still popular that focus on humans overcoming the elements in the wilderness. However, wilderness has a even deeper meaning than that. There has been a spiritual element to the wilderness that has been integral to North American society for centuries. From the Pilgrims to Thomas Cole to Thoreau to John Muir to Bob Marshall to Aldo Leopold, the spiritual aspect of the wild led these men on philosophical movements. John Nagle argues "the spiritual benefit which people receive from a stay in the wilderness is not a tangible item, but it must be an important consideration in legislation of America is truly dedicated to a somewhat idealistic sense of values." This notion has been seen throughout history as there was a clear sense of spirituality recognized when the Wilderness Act of 1964 was passed. Nagle, John Copeland. "The spiritual values of wilderness." Environmental Law, Fall 2005, p. 955+. Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources, find.galegroup.com/grnr/infomark.do?&source=gale&idigest=6f8f4a3faafd67e66fa023866730b0a1&prodId=GRNR&userGroupName=bucknell_it&tabID=T002&docId=A141802024&type=retrieve&PDFRange=%5B%5D&contentSet=IAC-Documents&version=1.0. Accessed 6 May 2017.

Wallace Stegner in an American author, environmentalist, and historian who grew up in the western part of the country where most of his writing was focused. He wrote about his life moving around the western states and growing up with nature having an important role in his life. Berger is quoting from Stegner's Wilderness Letter that he wrote in 1960. This quote is a good reflection of what Stegner's message was. Even though Stegner was a writer, he was an avid conservationist that was vocal with his beliefs. Once place Stegner lived was in Salt Lake City, Utah. He attended the University of Utah there and received his B.A. in 1930. Stegner continued his academics at the University of Iowa where he got his doctorate in 1935. Stegner went on to write Pulitzer Prize winning Angel of Repose in 1971 and National Book award winning the The Spectator Bird in 1976. Stegner's legacy as a writer and a conservationist can be seen throughout the places he lived. At the University of Utah the Wallace Stegner Prize in Environmental or American Western History was established in 2010. This award shows the lasting impact of Stegner's life on the subject. Stegner writes "Something will have gone out of us as a people if we ever let the remaining wilderness be destroyed." Stegner is one of the fathers of the conservation effort of the wilderness in the United States and it is appropriate that Berger quotes him here. Stegner, Wallace. "Earth words." Mother Earth News, August-September 2004, 128. Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources (accessed May 6, 2017). http://find.galegroup.com/grnr/infomark.do?&source=gale&idigest=6f8f4a3faafd67e66fa023866730b0a1&prodId=GRNR&userGroupName=bucknell_it&tabID=T003&docId=A119782042&type=retrieve&PDFRange=%5B%5D&contentSet=IAC-Documents&version=1.0.

In this context, Berger is using the Wilderness Act to reference how wilderness is defined. This is a very famous definition for the eloquent way the wilderness is described. "A wilderness, in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominate the landscape, is hereby recognized as an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain.” After many drafts and eight years of work the Wilderness Act was signed in 1964 by President Lyndon B. Johnson. Since the passage of this act there has been much debate about what land is "wilderness" and what should be done with this land. The main reason for the act is to protect these lands from development and industrialization. But another part of the reason was to increase recreational use of this land such as hiking, canoeing and fishing. "Over the decades an obvious contradiction has emerged between preservation and access." The National Forest Service is reluctant to put up signs and other infrastructure in these areas because it goes against the foremost goal of this act. Unfortunately, this is causing safety concerns for recreationists. Overall the Wilderness Act has made over 170,000 square miles into "wilderness" and has protect this land for the last half century. Gourlie, Don. "The Wilderness Act at 50." Environmental Law, Spring 2014, 285+. Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources (accessed May 6, 2017). http://find.galegroup.com/grnr/infomark.do?&source=gale&idigest=6f8f4a3faafd67e66fa023866730b0a1&prodId=GRNR&userGroupName=bucknell_it&tabID=T002&docId=A375290680&type=retrieve&PDFRange=%5B%5D&contentSet=IAC-Documents&version=1.0.

Sequoia National Park is a large land reserve in southern California which is home to the Sequoia National Forest. This forest is home to five out of the ten largest trees in the world and contains the single largest tree known as the General Sherman Tree. General Sherman stands at a whopping 275ft and a 14ft diameter at the middle of the tree. Sequoia National Park was founded in 1890 and was part of the initial effort to create more national parks to conserve the different habitats and ecosystems in the United States. The mission of the national parks was to bring awareness of the beauty of our environment. National parks were created to have designated areas that were set aside for humans to enjoy in a natural state. This concept still holds true today in parks as research shows "that this wilderness, in contrast to where most visitors live, is highly valued for clean air and water, natural sounds, low density of people, lack of motorized noise, and where evidence of human influence is relatively unnoticeable." Sequoia and other national parks around it are a large source of eco-tourism in the area. Eco-tourism is becoming a more prevalent force in the world today and some countries such as Costa Rica have much of their entire economy built on it.

Watson A, Martin S, Christensen N, Fauth G, Williams D. The Relationship Between Perceptions of Wilderness Character and Attitudes Toward Management Intervention to Adapt Biophysical Resources to a Changing Climate and Nature Restoration at Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Park](http://insert-your-link-here.com))mber 2015;56(3):653-663. Available from: GreenFILE, Ipswich, MA. Accessed April 25, 2017.

Alexis de Tocqueville is a French politician and historian that is best known for his work, "Democracy in America". Tocqueville wrote this piece with two volumes in 1835 and 1840 after visiting the United States. He traveled around the country making observations on American society compared to his European standard. His work focused on the many aspects of US government and policy ranging from manifest destiny to slavery. A major part of de Tocqueville's work was his study of the different races and how they interact. He drew the picture of America "where three typical characters predominate: the black who suffer in slavery, the Indian who is free in idleness, and the white American who is at work and at work. Profit." Tocqueville focused on other parts of American society as well that Berger references at this part. Here, Berger is quoting a section about how American's drive for expansion led to the destruction of the environment which. Tocqueville was a revolutionary with this observation as he was one of the first people to document the devastation that industrialization can bring to the natural world. Over the next decades this idea would be adopted by many including Theodore Roosevelt and lead to the creation of National Parks across the United States. Berger is using this quote because this idea is still extremely prevalent in the conservation effort today. Berger concedes that expansion of technology and industrialization is inevitable but that sometimes the cost of this advancements is not worth the punishment to the environment. Tocqueville's observations are still major issue in developing countries where massive industrialization is just beginning.

Denys Delâge and Catherine Desbarats and Jean-Philippe Warren. "Alexis de Tocqueville in" wild "country." The Tocqueville Review / La revue Tocqueville 36, no. 2 (2015): 175-204. Https://muse.jhu.edu/ (accessed April 17, 2017).

French-Canadians is a term used when describing the families that speak French and live mostly in Quebec, Canada. Settling in this area long before the French and Indian War, the French began their settlements in the early 1600's. They were Roman Catholic, and had a distinct culture from their Protestant southern neighbors settling what would be called New England at the same time. These French-Canadians settled modern day Montreal and Quebec City, along with many other municipalities in the hundreds of miles in Eastern Canada and along the St. Lawrence River. They were farmers, priests, traders and voyageurs. Their biggest influence in the United States came when large numbers of French Canadians immigrated to work in the mills of New England in the era of 1870-1920.

Moogk, Peter N. La Nouvelle France: The Making of French Canada: a Cultural History. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2000.

Two things: first, in other writings by Ong where he uses this situation, he cites the loss of Roman baby talk, a purely oral, mostly feminine form of the language that we have forever lost to history. Second, this also reminds me of Nina Baym's "Melodramas of Beset Manhood," and her assertion of the male "literature" and female "best seller" and how historically they've been opposed.

Mr. Palmer is campaigning around the country for a seat in Parliament's House of Commons. Mr. Palmer is most likely campaigning for a seat as a representative for specific boroughs (Thorne, "IV. The Changing Face of the House and Political Parties," The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1790-1820, (1986)).

Elizabeth Lanfear describes the repercussions of marriage and the commonality of how marriages occur: “marriage, generally speaking, in either sex, is more frequently the result of accident than of selection : propinquity, convenience, interest, or, at best, mere fancy, dignified by the name of love, forms the basis, of most matrimonial engagements” (Lanfear, Young Ladies on their Entrance into the World, p. 47). Lanfear's statement on marriage relates to this moment where Elinor notes her knowledge of this common type of marriage. In relation to Lanfear's statement, Elinor notices the infatuation between Mr. Palmer and his wife being the main attraction that led to their marriage.

In her conduct book published in 1824, Elizabeth Lanfear explains the etiquette expected from married women: “a sensible woman, to preserve the peace and secure the affections of her husband, will often sacrifice her own inclinations to his” (Lanfear, Young Ladies on their Entrance into the World, p. 67). Lanfear states that married woman are expected to sacrifice their tendencies and desires for those of her husbands. In regard to the relationship between Charlotte Palmer and her husband, this same etiquette is very strongly illustrated. In this particular moment, Charlotte is being selflessly tolerant to her husband's comments whether or not her husband's actions affect her.

"To superscribe (a letter, etc.) with a signature, so as to ensure its being sent without charge" (OED). According to The History of the British Post Office, franking was a privilege that allowed sending letters without being charged. However, over time, this privilege was highly abused and ultimately by 1840 this privilege was finally abolished. Franking free letters for others not in Parliament and for non Parliament purposes was so serious a Franking Department was created to inspect such letter (Hemmeon, The History of the British Post Office, p. 57).

A billiard room according to David Selwyn served as a key part of enjoyment towards entertaining guests, "large houses . . . were provided with a billiard room, which, though largely for the enjoyment of the men, could sometimes be an advantage to the ladies: Jane Austen commented that it drew 'all the Gentlemen to it whenever they are within, especially after dinner'" (Selwyn, Jane Austen and Leisure, p. 265). In this context, Austen is depicting the assumption that people with large houses who frequently entertain guests are expected to have a billiard room.

A gig is "a light two-wheeled one-horse carriage" (OED). Austen is saying these gigs are very fashionable and flashy. These carriages relate lawyers to the association of wealth. Aoife Byrne states that "gigs in Austen's works highlight their owner's social aspirations, and they illustrate contextual attitudes to those aspirations" (Byrne, "'Very Knowing Gigs': Social Aspiration and the Gig Carriage in Jane Austen's Works," Persuasions: The Jane Austen Journal, vol. 37 (2015)). . For the lawyers that "drove about" in these carriages, Austen is suggesting the connection of carriages relating lawyers to wealth and fashion.

In other words, "who were lawyers." Edward's referencing the barrister's chambers in the Temple, an area of London.

An example of an early 19th century cottage, this one being the birthplace of author Thomas Hardy