“Double time”is defined by the New Grove Dictionary of Jazzas “the apparent doubling of the tempo [...] achieved by halving the prevailing note-value” (Kernfeld, 2002). In an explanation of the same term written for a popular audience, the book What to Listen for in Jazzclarifies that double time “involves a doubling of tempo in the rhythm section, a doubling of the general speed of the melody line, or both” (Kernfeld, 1997).The Grove’s use of the word “apparent” implies that the tempo has not in fact doubled. To emphasize this point, some authors prefer the more precise term “double-time feel,” reserving the term “double time” for a true doublingof tempo(Levine, 1995).

Metrical Dissonance

Swing Rhythm

TempoPerception andBeat Inference

Worklist according to instrument

Clazz

Biography

Surendran Reddy, Master of Clazz

Bebop

Works

Biography

Zimology

u and me

Way back Fiftie

CWave after Wav

Sons and Captain

Sonia

oetwate

hebeen

Sekela Khulum

Qongqothwane (Click Song

ayer forNkost

lastic Ba

Pata Pat

rk Station

Ngena Ngena (To Mov

ra.

onwabisi

Majietas

ackpot

Grazin' in the Gra

Drumbeat No.2

Hellfire

Country Cooking

MBAGANGA

GoEMA

Sons and Captains

The Walking Bass

Swing Rhythms: Shuffles and Ten-to-Ten

In looking at time in jazz

Bebop

Bebop: Modern New York Jazz

Transcription

Jazz

DECONSTRUCTING “THE SOUTH AFRICANJAZZFEEL”: ROOTS, RHYTHMS AND FEATURES OF SOUTH AFRICAN JAZZ

The Canonization of Jazz and Afro-American Literature

Chapter 27 makes forays into post-tonal music theory in an attempt to demonstrate howsome of its concepts—trichords, in particular—are implemented in jazz. Familiar topicsare presented anew with the emphasis on ear training and harmony

In this section, several approaches to reharmonization will be discussed and illustrated byusing sections from Joseph Kosma’s classic tune “Autumn Leaves”

Chapter 25 discusses various approaches to jazz reharmonization. It begins by consideringtwo contrasting approaches to harmony: vertical and horizontal. Eleven basic techniquesof reharmonization are introduced and demonstrated using Joseph Kosma’s “AutumnLeaves.” More advanced linear techniques are shown in the context of Jerome Kern’s “Allthe Things You Are” and Victor Young’s “Stella By Starlight.”

hapter 24 provides a list of standard tunes with extended and unusual formal designs.As an example of the extended form, “Dream Dancing” is analyzed

The hexatonic scale is a six-note collection that conveys characteristics similar to theseven-note modes. Just like pentatonics, hexatonic scales have more interesting intervallicproperties and provide essential notes for melodic lines and harmonic formations. Thehexatonic collections are compartmentalized in the familiar categories and scales are gener-ated from aggregates of pitches that contain all available notes from the particular category.For instance, since the pitch aggregate for the major category contains eight notes, thereare a number of options for creating different major hexatonics. Given the enormous rangeof options, it is best to pick a scale whose pitch content best conveys specific modalcharacteristics.The derivation of hexatonics from the aggregate puts the understanding of pitch hierarchyto the test. The pitch structure of different hexatonics prioritizes only those notes thatare essential to projecting the exact harmonic function and/or intended chord–scalerelationship. Each category below includes two types of hexatonic collection: regular andaltered. Regular hexatonics share common characteristics with the corresponding modes.For instance, Mixolydian ≥11 hexatonic has similar properties to the seven-note Mixolydian≥11 mode, etc. Altered hexatonics are derived from the specific pitch aggregate and theirstructure includes minor variations from regular hexatonics. In labeling altered hexatonics,use the name of the category with Roman numerals specifying different variations (i.e.Major Altered I, Dominant Altered II, etc.)

Chapter 18 provides an analysis of Charlie Parker’s “Confirmation” as a representativecomposition from the Bebop Era. It offers a transcription of the solo by the pianist HankJone

In jazz, pentatonics represent a rich assortment of scales with a vast potential forimprovisation. They come in a variety of flavors, from the simple blues inflections addedto diatonic pentatonics popularized by Lester Young in the 1930s to the chromaticallyaltered five-note segments common in contemporary jazz styles

Chapter 19 provides an analysis of Charlie Parker’s “Moose the Mooche” and Hank Jones’simprovised solo on the tune. This chapter also proposes a pedagogy of rhythm changesimprovisation.

Chapter 17 analyzes three blues progressions from the Bebop Era and proposes additionalapproaches to blues improvisation

Chapter 16 examines the pitch structure, chord–scale relationships, harmonic and melodicpotential of the octatonic scale

The so-called Bebop revolution in the late 1930s was probably one of the most importantmusical events in the history of jaz

chromatic [ii≤57–V7]/x interpolation

Chapter 15 examines bebop and begins developing a pedagogy of bebop improvisation

Chapter 14 discusses three types of voicing chord, upper-structure triads, rootlessformations and incomplete voicings, and explores their harmonic and voice-leadingpotential

The blues is an American art form. Originally, blues were primarily sung, with one of theobjectives being to tell a story as vividly as possible. To tell stories, blues singers usedsimple repeated phrases charged with a variety of expressive devices. The ability to tell thestory from one’s perspective came to represent blues performance practice in particular,and jazz improvisation in general. The familiar saying that “your solo should tell a story”takes on a completely different meaning when we consider whence it came and howintricate life’s stories can really be. Early blues practitioners were unconstrained by theform of the blues as the duration of improvised lyrics often influenced the length of

modulatory four-barphrase

The terms “turnaround” and “tag ending” are generic labels that do not indicate a partic-ular chord sequence; rather, they suggest the specific formal function of these progressions.In jazz, there is a certain subset of harmonic progressions whose names suggest specificchord successions. When jazz musicians use the term “Lady Bird” progression,for instance, it connotes a particular chromatic turnaround from Tadd Dameron’s tuneof the same title recorded in 1947. Figure 13.9 illustrates the chord structure of thatprogression using Model VI of harmonic realization

Jazz musicians often use different harmonic substitutions to modify the content of diatonicprogressions. The most common harmonic modifications of the Imaj 7 –vi 7 –ii 7 –V 7progression involve the use of secondary dominant chords (V7/X), and tritone substitutions(TR/X 7). Figure 13.5 demonstrates these substitutions using Model III of harmonicrealization.The secondary dominant 7ths A7 and D7 are analyzed with two different Roman numerallabels VI7 and V 7/ii, and II 7 and V 7/V, which can be used interchangeably. The tritonesubstitutions, E≤7 and D≤7, also use two Roman numerals, ≤III7 and TR/VI7, and ≤II7and TR/V7, respectively

The ii7–V7–Imaj7 progression constitutes the perfect vehicle to introduce one of the mostimportant features of jazz harmony: the tritone substitution, notated as TR/X 7. Thetritone substitution has its theoretical origins in the equal or symmetrical division of theoctave. This substitution is associated with the dominant 7th chord and capitalizes oninversional invariance of the tritone inherent to the dominant 7th formation.

Chapter 12 introduces seven models of realizing harmonic progressions on the keyboard

n order to become a successful jazz musician, one has to learn how to read, interpret,and modify lead sheets. Improvising from a lead sheet is a unique performance skill thatjazz musicians cultivate on a daily basis and perfect over a long period of time. Comparableto other shorthand notations from classical music, such as figured bass, tablature,partimento, or others, lead-sheet notation contains just enough essential information tocreate a complete performance

Chapter 10 embarks on a study of improvisation. After some introductory remarks, theimportance of melody in improvisation is discussed. A few basic improvisational strategiesinvolving blues riffs, guide tones, and motifs are closely examined and implemented inpractice

The progression shown in Figure 9.9 exemplifies the structure of a minor blues.4The chord structure of the minor blues is characterized by the presence of traditionaltonal progressions. For instance, the tonicization of iv in m. 4 uses a secondary dominant7th, V7/iv, and the motion to V 7 in m. 10 is prepared by the ≤VI7 chord. This particularpreparation of the dominant 7th, ≤VI7–V7, is one of the harmonic trademarks of the minorblues.

Figure 9.8 establishes a couple of chord–scale relationships for the basic blues progressionin the key of B≤. Figure 9.8a uses major and minor blues scales and Figure 9.8b combinesblues scales and modes

In the most fundamental form, the generic blues consists of only three chords: I7, IV 7,and V 7. These harmonies control the structure of the blues, even though in some chordprogressions, particularly those from the Bebop Era, they might be disguised, substituted,transformed, or omitted all together. The generic or three-chord blues, without anyadditional chord changes, was often employed in early jazz, particularly in Early Blues,Boogie-Woogie, and different New Orleans styles.3 We will now examine the harmonicstructure of a slightly modified blues (one that is probably the most common in jazz),

Having examined the structure of the blues scale, we can now explore the tonal potentialof the scale.2 Figure 9.4 illustrates the structure of G blues scale.This scale has a minor feel to it; notice the use of ≤3, ≤5, and ≤7. By starting the scale onB≤3 and continuing through the octave, we are able to generate a major scale that, inaddition to having the “blue” 3rd, also contains the major 3rd needed for major anddominant 7th chords. A major blues scale, shown in Figure 9.5, starts on ≤3 of the regularblues scale, contains a perfect 5th, major 6th, and major 9th, and establishes a convincingchord–scale relationship with the B≤6/9, B≤13 or other B≤–based dominant 7th chords.In addition to more generic usage of the blues scale (where a single scale is used in thecontext of different chords), we can be more discerning and assign a regular blues scaleto minor chords and a major blues scale to major and dominant 7th chords.

The musical depiction of the lyrics from Figure 9.2 illustrates an additional aspect of bluesperformance practice—the use of call and response. Originally practiced by a large groupof people, this improvisational technique involves sharing ideas between the leader andher/his followers. Mastering the call and response technique is especially important at thebeginning of our encounter with jazz improvisation. It engages us in a meaningfuldialogue that includes exchanging and communicating musical ideas. The communicativeaspect of call and response is relatively straightforward in the context of verbal conversation.

Chapter 9 discusses the most important form in jazz, the blues, examines the structureof the blues scale, and provides chord–scale relationships for the basic and minor bluesprogressions

The intermediary category contains three modes: Dorian, Locrian, and Locrian Ω2

Chapter 8 establishes a relationship between the vertical and horizontal dimensions injazz. The diatonic and chromatic modes are revisited, and chord–scale relationships withfour-, five-part chords, and the II–V–I progressions are established.

Chapter 6 investigates the most important progression in jazz—the II–V–I—and its twotonal variants: ii7–V7–Imaj7 and ii≤57–V7–i7. A discussion of guide tones, secondary dominant7ths, and diminished 7th chords and their subsequent voice-leading transformations furtheramplifies the importance of the progression

In jazz terminology, the term “voicing” refers to the arrangement of notes within a chord.That arrangement can be either close or open. In a close voicing the arrangement ofnotes is the most packed possible. In an open voicing, the arrangement of notes is

Chapter 4 establishes the foundation of jazz harmonic syntax. Fourteen four-part chordsare introduced and their functional status is examined

Broadly speaking, voice leading controls the interaction between chords and lines withinharmonic progressions. The principles of voice leading encompass several general topics,such as the role of outer-voice counterpoint, the types of melodic motion, the retentionof common tones, the treatment of dissonances, and others that will be discussedthroughout the book.At the surface level, jazz voice-leading conventions seem more relaxed than they are incommon-practice music. After all, jazz musicians use forbidden parallel perfect fifths andoctaves, move all the voices in the same direction, and tolerate voice crossings of differentsorts. The rules of jazz voice leading are different because the syntax of jazz is largelyincompatible with common-practice classical or other types of music. These differencesdo not mean, however, that the rules of jazz voice leading are any less strict. When jazzmusicians think about dissonance treatment or highlight a linear approach to harmony asopposed to a vertical one, they rely just as much on well-defined rules of voice leading asdo composers of common-practice music. The conventions of jazz voice leading dependgreatly on the soprano and bass, so-called outer-voice counterpoint.

The function symbol notation is the least used notational system in jazz. As the namesuggests, this notation specifies the harmonic function of individual chords and evencomplete chord progressions. It has the potential of being useful to notate specificbehaviors of chords that may not—at least, not on the surface level—indicate that theybelong to a particular functional family of chords. As such, function symbols enable theperception of harmonic progressions from a more structural perspective. Function symbolsindicate neither the architecture nor the specific scale degrees of chords. This style ofnotation is more conceptual than it is representative of a specific surface event. The termssurface level and structural level are used to describe musical events and the degree oftheir importance. “Structural” events occur beneath the musical “surface” and areresponsible for the overall tonal, harmonic, and melodic forces controlling the piece.Function symbols use three labels: T for tonic-type chords, PD for predominant-typechords, and D for dominant-type chords.

When using Roman numerals, however, complex five-, six-, orseven-part formations will be translated to their essential four-part framework. For instance,F7(≤13) in the key of C major will be simply notated as IV7

Lead-sheet notation, also known as popular-music notation, is by far the most widespreadnotational convention used by jazz musicians. It comes in a variety of forms that arisefrom its murky origins and subsequent vague implementations. There are many alternatenotational systems in use, which for better or worse every jazz musician needs to getfamiliar with for purely practical, “bandstand” reasons. Here, we will only use chordsymbols that are commonly found in published and respected fake books. Lead-sheetnotation is very specific in showing what the chord is: it indicates the letter name, theexact number and types of extensions occurring within a chord, chordal inversions, orcomplex polychordal formations. A chord symbol, then, provides a quick insight into thechord’s pitch content. As such, it can be easily transmitted into a voicing that capturesthe essence of that symbol. The downside of this labeling is the lack of contextualconsiderations, especially in regard to the underlying tonality. As a tonally “uninterpreted”notation, we are not quite sure, for instance, how chords relate to one another, how theirbehavior conveys the underlying tonality, and what the overall tonal logic of differentchord successions may be.In this book, upper-case letter names will be used to indicate major-type chords. For minor-type chords a “min” extension following an upper-case letter name will be used. The lead-sheet symbols from Figure 3.6 also employ slash notation; this specifies a chord typewith the lowest sounding pitch separated by a diagonal slash. An upper-case letter nameto the right of the diagonal indicates the chordal root. The letter name to the left of thediagonal shows a specific chord type.

Figure 3.6 illustrates the structure of four triads and their inversions labeled with threesets of notational symbols: traditional lead-sheet notation above the staff, and Romannumerals and function symbols below the staff. Since we will use them interchangeablythroughout the book, let us make some general observations about their usefulness intheory and practice. Each of these notational conventions has unique advantages, but alsosome obvious shortcomings.

harmonic functioncan be defined as a contextual feature that can be attributed to a chord, a family of chords,harmonic progressions, or even to complete melodic phrases. These features are uniquefor each of the following functions: the tonic, the predominant, and the dominant. Theinteraction between these three creates a system of functional tonality, which undergirdsthe structure of tonal jazz and common-practice music

Chapter 3 defines harmonic function

The use of dynamics, legato, and especially articulation can substantially improve the overallpresentation of melodic lines. Generally, the use of dynamics should roughly follow thecontour of the melodic lines. Rising lines are typically played with a slight crescendo anddescending lines with a slight diminuendo. Additionally, melodic lines should be playedalmost legato with barely perceptible note detachment. Carefully distributed articulations(dynamic accents, staccato, tenuto, marcato, etc.) are also an essential component ofphrasing.

The term “swing” has multiple meanings and associations. Sometimes it refers to a specificmusical style from the 1930s called Swing. It may also refer to a performance practicetradition or a specific rhythmic attribute attached to the quality of 8th notes

Jazz Theory: From Basic to Advanced Study

Meter and Grouping in African Music: A View from Music Theory

The Overview Treatment of Odd Meters in The History of Jazz

The Solo Organ Music of Gunther Schuller (b. 1925)

Harmony, jazz

Linear Intervallic Patterns In Jazz Repertory

Grooveindrumpatternsasa functionofbothrhythmicpropertiesandlisteners’attitudes

GUNTHER SCHULLERA LIFE IN PURSUIT OF MUSIC AND BEAUTYWITH AN INTRODUCTION BY JOAN SHELLEY RUBINGUNTHER SCHULLERSchuller.inddiiiSchuller.indd iii9/19/20115:05:24PM9/19/2011 5:05:24 PM

Walking bass (jazz)

Fractal Harmonies of Southern Africa

Kinds of Harmony

GrooveA Phenomenology of Rhythmic Nuance

Hugo Riemann and the Birthof Modern Musical Thought

Mode

Motivic Composition

Metric Considerations

Reharmonization

Modal Harmony

Motivic Devices and the Rudiments of Form

Anticipation and Delayed Attack

Modes

What is Jazz?

Style

SchenkerGUIDE

Samba (jazz)

BebopThe Musicand Its Players

JAZZ AND CLASSICAL MUSIC DEFINED

THIRD STREAM (1957)

These jazz and fusion influences were especially instrumental in generating theclimax waves in my symphony. All of them are achieved by means of setting a metric groove withthe help of syncopation and cross-rhythms.

Wednesday, 11 January 2023 at 9:09:11 AM

hursday, 15 December 2022 at 1:47:23 AM

Saturday, 10 December 2022 at 2:47:34 AM South Africa Standard Time

Riemann was first and foremost an empirical scientist who sought to adequatelydescribe the practice of music composition (being a composer himself) and ways of howlisteners perceive and make sense of these compositions. Neo-Riemannians, in contrast,try to forge a universal "nomothetic" music theory that would prescribe a set of "laws" thatsupposedly secure the creation of "good" musical compositions - this, in essence, is thefoundation of the Schenkerian approach. (Schenker seems to have come up with his ideasfrom his experience of correcting mistakes of his pupils in the conservatory that they madein their written harmonization exercises).

I think that Riemannian theory applies to anymusic culture where multi-part textures occupy an important role, and music-users observe harmonic intervalsor/and chords. Technically speaking, even West African indigenous cultures that utilize parallel motion of chords (as identified and described by Kubik in his many books on African harmony) possess at least some basic harmonic functions. Although their harmony is generated by the 3-part dubbing of a melody in parallel thirds, the interaction of such dubbings with the metric grid inevitably puts in place some hierarchical distinctions between chords that are built on different degrees of melodic modes. Chords on those degrees that systemically fall on weaker metric time are likely to become subordinated to those chords that fall on stronger metric time. This is exactly the foundation of Riemannian theory.

The Pastoral Origin of Semiotically Functional Tonal Organization of Music

Modal Jazz Composition and Harmony

List of All Usable Modes

List of All Usable Pentatonic Scales

Additiona! Reharmonization

Articulations and Effects

Motific Development

PENTATONICS

REHARMONIZATION

MELODY

Downbeat delays are a key component of swingin jazz

Kind of Blueand the economy ofmodal jazz

Tracing the Development of the South African Alto Saxophone Style

THIRD STREAM

BLUES

AFRICAN AMERICAN MUSIC

JAZZTHE BASICS

Silent Film Music and the Theatre Organ

Essential Neo-Riemannian Theory for Today's Musician

ANALYZING JAZZ-A SCHENKERIAN APPROACH

Schenkerian Analysis of Modern Jazz: Questions about Method

Blue note

Call and response

Modal jazz rarely adheres strictly to the classical modes (Dorian, Phrygian, etc.), but it creates their flavour, or in some cases that of other non-diatonic scales, such as those of Spanish or Indian music

relatively undemanding by comparison with those based on chord progressions. Because it is free of frequent harmonic interruption it can more easily create an unhurried and meditative feeling. Many performances are based on a two-chord sequence or a drone. The absence of frequent chord changes alone is sometimes regarded as defining modal jazz

and

Tonality

THE ROUTLEDGE COMPANION TO PHILOSOPHY AND MUSIC

Latin jazz

How did jazz develop in South Africa?

Theater organ [cinema organ]

Salsa (jazz)

Ontology of the Son

The Aesthetics of Sabor

The Salsa Concept

From Afro-Cuban Rhythms to Latin Jazz

front line

Vaudeville (“Classic”) Blues

BLUES

Another

Melodic Paraphrase

How

FORM

TEXTURE

harmonic substitutions

Harmony

All

MELODY, SCALES, AND MODES

If

Th

RHYTHM, METER, AND SWING

Dynamics

Rhythm Section

JAZZ

Bop [bebop, rebop]

THE BIRTH OF BEBOP

How Weird Can Things Get? (Maps for PantonalImprovisation)

Sonic signatures in South African jazz: A stylistic analysis of the trio music of Kyle Shepherd, Bokani Dyer and Nduduzo Makhathini

Debussy, Pentatonicism, and the Tonal Tradition

Microtiming Deviations and Swing feel in Jazz

Interpretations

Theories and Methods Applied to the Analysis of a Work of Jazz

MELODY

FORM

Rhythm

ANALYSIS OF JAZZ

Harmony 2—Harmonic Situations: Tonality . . . . . . 987Harmony 3—Harmonic Situations: Blues, Modality, Non-functionality

FUSION, CROSSOVER, AND CATEGORIZATION .

TERNARY FORMS..

TWO WORLDS COLLIDE ..

NOTATION OF JAZZ STYLE, SWING RHYTHM, AND PERFORMANCE

Modal Jazz

Diminished Scales and Harmony

Pentatonics

Quartal Harmony and sus Chords

Garner-style Chords

Bent-note and Double-note Techniques

Swing Eighths