theworksprescribed in earlier years were much easier and written as lead sheets rather than detailed notations for both hands, which gave the performers the opportunity to rely more on their improvisational and arrangement skills rather than their reading skills to successfullyinterpret the works.

Articulation specifications such as the staccatomarkings in Ballad for Thomas(Example 2.2.2) and sempre legato in Two Studies for Piano(Example 2.2.3). •Scale patterns in the left hand in Example 2.2.1 bar 30 and Example 2.2.3 bar 2-4 in Two Studies for Piano. •The similarity of sudden change in time signature, which can be found throughoutAfrican Funk for Felix, Ballad for Thomas and Lutoslawski’s Two Studies forPiano.

Reddy use Western art music notation devices similar to those used by Lutoslawski in Two Studies for Piano no.1(Example 2.2.3):•There are detailed dynamic markings in both Ballad for Thomas and Lutoslawski’s Two Studies for Piano, although African Funk for Felix does not have any dynamic markings. It is important to note that Reddy states in the preface to Ballad for Thomasthat the dynamic markings are a mere suggestion (Reddy 2005c).•The use of Italian expressions, for example crescendoin Ballad for Thomas (Example 2.2.2) and sempre legatoin Two Studies for Piano(Example 2.2.3).

Texture is regarded asthe joining of musical voices into melodic and accompaniment factors. In his book, Alfred’s essentialsof jazz theory,Berg (2005:3) writes: “... it is texturethat provides an aural dimension of depth”. The use of voicings6(Levine 1989:42) and texture in the three late piano worksare examined in this chapter.

In addition, certain stylistic rhythmic elements in the worksareanalysed. Reddy’s musicis highly syncopated. Rhythm, as Neuhaus(1973)describes in his book The art of piano playing, is comparedto the pulse of a living organism, and he is adamant that even in a toccata the pulse will vary as the pulse of a healthy person is regular, but increases or decreases under the pressure of psychological or physical experience:Music is a tonal process and being a process and not an instant, or an arrested state, it takes place in time. The rhythm of a musical composition is frequently –and not without reason –compared to the pulse of a living organism (Neuhaus 1973:30).

In this chapter the various stylistic influences in Reddy’s African Funk for Felix, Ballad for Thomas, and Toccata for John Roos are traced and delineated. By shedding light on the stylistic features that Reddy brought to pianistic realisation, I provideinterpretative insightsbased on a stylistic study of these works. This study is conducted by way of an overview of the stylistic musical elements found within the harmony, melody, rhythm, texture, form and style of the three works.The structures of the compositions are analysedincludingthe form of the composition, improvisation sections, intros, outros, modulation, development, and specific stylistic structural qualities, for example the cyclic repetition within the mbaqangasection in African Funk for Felix(Allen 2001; Bennet 2002:4-8; Berg 2005:3; Harrison 2009:131-132).Furthermore, examples of Reddy's harmonic vocabulary are givenand concepts such as extended jazz chords, harmonic repetition, ostinato, tension versus resolution, modal harmony, accompaniment style, modulation, transitions between different sections, and stylistic harmonic characteristics form part of this discussion (Reddy 2005b; 2005c; 2007).Stylistic melodic structures and motifs are also delineatedwith specific focus onstylistic licks,5development of the melody, tension and release, melodic material in the left hand, walking bass patterns, and melodies borrowed or quoted from other compositions (Aebersold 1992:43; Berg 2005:7; Harrison 2009:91; Reddy 2005b; 2005c; 2007).The use (or sometimes even lack) of dynamic markings in Reddy’s worksis also investigated. In African Funk for FelixReddy did not include dynamic markings. There arerecordings(as discussed in the literature review) that can be used as a referencewhen studying the work, but if itis performed as a solo piano composition, the

His skills are apparent by looking at the rapid metronome marking (130 per crotchet) of one of his late piano works, African Funk for Felix (Reddy 2005b:1). This metronome markingadds to the difficulty of the workthat comprisesa repeated semiquaver ostinato, complex syncopations and rhythms, changes in time signatures, and technically challenging passages for both hands.

While I enjoyed an excellent classical music education in London at the Royal College of Music I ventured later intopop, rock and other musical styles without abandoning my classical roots, and attempted to share the fruits of this Catholic musical perspective with audiences. They were perhaps not ready for pioneering efforts in bridging the gap between jazz and classical, then, and seemed to me sometimes to advocate a kind of ‘apartheid in music'(Reddy 2005a).

This led him to createhis distinctive compositional style referred to as clazz.The name originated froman amalgamation of the words ‘classical’ and ‘jazz’. In reality, clazzcomprisesseveral musical genresincludingjazz, pop, Indian, world music, rock, Javanese gamelan music, South African mbaqanga,isicathamiya, and Western art music. Reddy’s political and philosophical beliefs are evident in clazz. By fusing different musical styles, he exhibitedhis humanitarianism, deeming all should be treated equally(Reddy 2007:11; Lucia 2010b:53; Van der Merwe 2016:71).

rather than being born into a culture and almost becoming a victim of it one could choose ones culture or cultures and integrate one’s perception of them into one’s own creativity. both in time and in space one could travel around our world absorbing the best that different cultures and epochs have to offer us and making this, if appropriate, our own voice. i came to see music as one language with countless different dialects when viewed both internationally and inter-temporally any of which could be incorporated into one’s own self-expression if the subject matter of what one wished to express so necessitated it. (‘preface’ to ‘six baroque suites’, 2006)

Surendran recorded two solo CDs in Johannesburg, Ready, Steady, Go! (1994) and Rough’n Reddy (1996), wonderfully illustrate his  crossover style, one of the conventions of which (as with playing Chopin) is maintaining a steady beat in the left hand “while the right hand moves rhapsodically, and with possibilities of rubato, above it” (‘Composer’s Note’).

MARABI

South African jazz

Sideman on the Frontlines: Gwigwi Mrwebi and South African Jazz History

Figure 1.3 Ghoema beat (from Johannes, 2010:35)

What to Listen For in Jazz

Schuller differentiates between thewestern and African understandings of polyrhythmic playing by stating that westernmusicians generally see polyrhythm as two or more rhythmic patterns played simultaneouslybut always resolving or meeting at the start and ending of phrases, bar lines and other centralpoints in the music. In contrast, “African music” reveals a far more intricate, extended,“polymetrically organized” understanding of polyrhythms, in which the individual rhythmicphrases hardly ever, and sometimes never coincide vertically (Schuller 1968, 11). These twointerpretations of polyrhythm are apparent in much U.S.-American jazz and can be seen toshift closer to the African approach in the later styles of jazz through the rhythmiccontributions of musicians such as John Coltrane, Tony Williams and Miles Davis. KeithWaters states that polyrhythm and polymeter, which he terms “metrical conflict”, were a keyfeature of music performed and recorded by the Miles Davis Quintet from 1965 to 1968(Waters 2011, 68).In terms of the use of polyrhythm in Western music from the pre-jazz era, Schuller citesCharles Ives as the only European composer who experimented with polymetric andpolyrhythmic structures, stating as an example Ives’s Fourth Symphony. Gridley deviatesfrom Schuller by suggesting that polyrhythms were used in European folk and concert musicin America for a long time before the jazz era came about but were not as prominent as inAfrican music (Gridley 1999, 45). He acknowledges the African ancestry of polyrhythms asoriginating from combinations of rhythms which can be heard in ragtime music. He definespolyrhythms as “the sounding of some rhythms that have a basis of two pulses while

Polyrhythms and Polymeter

kwel

marab

I am particularly interested in how performance style and expressive vocabulary changes over time, as evidenced on sound recordings. I enjoy exploring aesthetics questions both empirically through experiments and measurements as well as philosophically, i.e. in their historical and cultural context.I try to embrace interdisciplinary approaches (e.g. cognitive neuroscience and perception as well as ethnographic and archival work) and learn from cross cultural investigations. I particularly like working with performers who are interested in research.

TheoryofAfricanMusic

Theory of African MusicVOLUME II

Harmony 2Study SupplementHomework Exercises for HR-112Joe MulhollandandTom HojnackiThird Edition

Harmony 2The Course Text for HR-112Joe Mulhollandand Tom HojnackiThird Edition

Glossary of some important musical terms

Listen to the recordings of arrangers and players who use these voicings to createtheir characteristic sounds. Here are a few suggestions:McCoy Tyner: Tender Moments (Blue Note CDP 7 84275)Phil Woods’ Little Big Band: Real Life (Chesky JD 47)Phil Woods’ Little Big Band: Evolution (Concord Jazz CCD 4361)Bill Perkins Octet: On Stage (Pacific Jazz 93163)Miles Davis: Birth Of The Cool (Capital Jazz CDP 7 92862 2)Miles Davis: Kind of Blue (Columbia CK40579)vii

Mode

Select Discography ofJazz Recordingfor Students

bebop‚ swing‚ funky groove‚ calypso‚ bluesy‚ heavyrhythm and blues‚ and spiritual

ESTIMATING TEMPO, SWING AND BEAT LOCATIONS IN AUDIO RECORDINGS

UNISAMUSIEKTEORIELEERPLANNE

Tussendominante en tussenleitone

Rhythms are quickly wearisome, unless refreshed by a countervailing foreground which groups the tones against the metre. The ever‐so‐slight rubato of a solo instrument playing in front of the beat is familiar to jazzlovers. To play jazz properly it is not enough to move with the beat: you must also enter the ‘groove’ of it, which means riding alongside it with those playful gestures that ruffle the rhythmic surface and fill it with light. The distinction between beat and groove is a special case of the general distinction between foreground and background rhythm.

Tristano

$

Double-time

Notes inégales

Metodes van beklemtoning

Klem-tipes

The primary determinants of musica l foml in tonal music were tonality and theme, withcontrast of tonalities being a generally stronger force than contrast of themes. The declinein tonality as an organizing force has often led to a greater reliance on thematic contrast;but in many pieces, themes, in the sense of melodies, pla ya small or nonex istent part. Themost obvious example is electronic music, where texture, register, dynami cs, and especial MIy timbre are usua ll y more important as shaping elements than themes are. Rhythmic ac-ti vity is another organiz in g factor

200 Standard Tunes You Should Know

ost-Tonal Jazz

Bebop

Voicings

Modes

ebop Blue

GROOVE

Big band

the use of a choir of instruments, in this case two saxophones, as the main means of exposing the melody, and the playing off of different instruments against one another in a rudimentary contrapuntal manner

CATEGORlf S OF JAZZ CUMPOSIT ION

MODAL JAZZ COMPOSlTlON G HARMONY

Appendix A: Drum Kit Notation

Rhythmic Phrasing

Exoticisation of South African Jazz and Township Culture

Reworking the South African Jazz Sound

Influence of Apartheid

Traits of South African Jazz in Masekela’s Style

South African and U.S.-American Rhythm Sections

Rhythmic Influence of Latin Music on South African Jazz Styles

Rhythm section

Analysis of Selected South African JazzRecordings

South African Jazz Sound

Mbaqanga

Marabi

Behind the Beat”Feel

Syncopation

Theoretical Framework

Jazz in South Africa: Roots and Styles

Blues and Song Form

In a blues song with a sung text, the lyrics consist of a line that is repeated, then followed by a contrasting line (aab). The melody often follows this structure as well. Blues melodies often leave large gaps to allow for call-and-response between the melodic instrument and other instruments. The blues scale is like a minor pentatonic scale with an additional chromatic passing tone: do–me–fa–fi–sol–te (^1−↓^3−^4−↑^4−^5−↓^7)(1^−↓3^−4^−↑4^−5^−↓7^)(\hat1-\downarrow\hat3-\hat4-\uparrow\hat4-\hat5-\downarrow\hat7). The blues scale can be rotated to begin on its second note, creating a major blues scale: do–re–ri–mi–sol–la (^1−^2−↑^2−^3−^5−^6)(1^−2^−↑2^−3^−5^−6^)(\hat1-\hat2-\uparrow\hat2-\hat3-\hat5-\hat6).

The “major” blues scale Some improvisers find it helpful to think of a major blues scale. The difference between a major and minor pentatonic scale is identical to the difference between the major and minor blues scale: the major blues scale is a rotation of the blues scale of its relative minor. Begin the blues scale on me (↓^3)(↓3^)(\downarrow\hat3), and you will get a blues scale for the relative major. These relationships are summarized in Example 5

Another essential part of blues phrase structure is the notion of call-and-response, a feature likely inherited from the work songs of enslaved Africans and African Americans. The vocal, lyricized melody takes on the role of the “call” while an instrumental filler takes on the role of the “response.” Notice that in “Gulf Coast Blues,” each lyric labeled with an a is sung entirely and exclusively in the first two measures of the phrase. Example 3 annotates a transcription of “Gulf Coast Blues” to show this call-and-response relationship.

This blues scale is used in both major and minor blues tunes, despite the clashes with the underlying harmony.

Much as the harmonies of the blues tend not to stick to one diatonic key, flouting the norms of tonal music, the melodies are similarly chromatic to match.

The poetic structure: it is undoubtedly a structure made of three lines of fourbars each but its organization differs on the levels of prosody, melody, andharmony.The prosodic structure: AAB generally. The phrase (either sung or spoken)during the first line is repeated in the second line and a second phrasefollows in the third line.9The melodic structure: AAB but often AA’B. The same melodic phrase usuallyis repeated but may be subject to variation.The harmonic structure: ABC. As seen above, the three lines have been differentfrom each other right from the most original chord changes. The first linestarts with I, the second with IV, and the third with V

The 12 Bars That Were Shaped by St. Louis: Community Growth and Blues Music; 1940-1965

Playing “outside the changes”To illuminate techniques of “outside” playing, an excerpt of Herbie Hancock’ssolo on the standard tune There is No Greater Love will show its application within thecontext of a standard AABA song form. This performance from a live recordingdemonstrates Hancock’s skill at moving from “inside” to “outside” and back again withinthe space of three choruses.

Quartal Harmony and sus ChordsQuartal chords can have a variety of uses. Sometimes they imply quartal harmonyand other times they are merely used to create interesting voicings of tertian chords; bothare staples of modern jazz keyboard harmony. There are many Preludes with isolatedchords voiced in fourths or with a right-hand figuration using fourths, and even thesequick references, along with Kapustin’s other devices, create a modern jazz context forhis musical ideas. Most of the examples discussed below feature more extensive use ofquartal techniques, and most use tertian harmony with quartal chord voicings

While there is nothing relaxed about the harmonic rhythm in Kapustin’s music,there are modal elements in some of his themes. Probably the most popular of the modesis Dorian and one of the first popular modal pieces, So What by Miles Davis, uses aDorian riff.

nvertible counterpoint

As for meter, Arom adds that “it is in fact the most elementary manifestationof rhythm,” 17 made of identical durations with regular stress patterns.

“The pulse, as it has just been defined, is notrhythm. Rhythm is created by a succession of sound events with contrastingfeatures. This contrast may be generated by accents, timbres and durations.”15This is how these three components operate:

walking bass, ching-a-ding, oom-pah

SOUND

Orchestral Settings and Instrumental Functions

street bands, made up of various combinations of brass instruments, clarinets, and drums, which played marches, hymns, popular songs

To answer your question about register, register doesbelong to the domain of timbre but differs from instrumentation that also belongs to timbre. I understand that in organ music the word "register" is synonymous to characteristic timbres of musical instruments. But confusion like this is inevitable with any of the 11 aspects: "melody" can have its own "harmony" (e.g., solo flute sonatas by CPE Bach), rhythm can be "metric" (e.g., compositions written in the genre of "perpetum mobile", e.g., Paganini or Weber), articulation can be dynamic (e.g., accent), etc..

INSTRUMENTATION AND ORCHESTRATION

TEXTURE AS A FORM DETERMINANT

SECTIONAL VARIATIONS

NONTHEMATIC DELINEATORS OF MUSICAL FORM

SCALE FORMATIONS IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY MUSIC