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Evaluation isthe worth of an argument.

Whilethepreviouspitfallfocusestoomuchonanimaginedaudience,thethirdpitfalleauthor'sintent.

describing the effect of the original argument. In thissituation, the writer describes how the argument (or a part of it) might affect an audience.

Analyzinganargumentiscommonlycalledrhetoricalanalysis

analysis seeks to make claims of fact rather thanclaims of value.

nalysis is the act of investigating how something works.

Appeals to value make a connection between the topic and a shared value or principle (such as fairness, equality, honor, kindness, selflessness, duty, responsibility, profit, or practicality).

subject and a basic human need (such as intimacy, self-realization,

Appeals to emotion draw on the emotions (f s, hopes, sympathies, yearnings) of the audience.

Appeals to character draw attention to the arguer’s (writer/speaker’s) personal nature, integrity, experience, wisdom, or personality.

Golden age fallacies characterize the past as broadly and inherently better.

reductio ad Hitlerum.

Association fallacies claim that two people or things share a quality just because they are somehow associated, connected, or related.

Bandwagon fallacies claim that because everyone else is doing it, you should, too,

ed herring fallacies are deliberate attempts to change the subject. Instead of deal- ing with the actual argument, the arguer introduces irrelevant points to distract the audience.

Begging the Question (also called circular reasoning and, in Latin, petitio principii) involves supporting a claim by restating (in different words) the claim itself.

Slippery slope fallacies claim that a certain way of thinking or acting will necessar- | ily lead to more of the same—that once you begin sliding down a slippery slope, you | will keep sliding.

on sequitur (Latin for it does not follow) skips or confuses logical steps. The conclu- sion cannot logically be arrived at through the premises.

Hasty generalizations draw conclusions based on too little evidence.

Either/or fallacies oversimplify an issue by claiming that only two options exist when there are more options to choose from.

Post hoc, ergo propter hoc (or faulty cause-effect) fallacies claim that if one thing happened before another, then the first thing must have caused the second.

Strawperson fallacies involve misrepresenting a position and then dismissing it as wrong.

Ad hominem (Latin for to the person) fallacies are personal attacks. Instead of responding to the ideas someone has put forth,

A fallacy is a false- hood, so a logical fallacy is a logical falsehood that makes no sense within a given situation.

Analogical reasoning depends on comparisons (or analogies).

enthymeme, which is a line of reasoning that contains an unstated premise. The unstated premise is so widely accepted that it goes unmentioned.

warrant, which is the link between a claim and its grounds (the claim's supporting reason). The warrant (which is sometimes stated, sometimes unstated) expresses why a person would accept a claim based on the grounds.

Inductive reasoning builds from specific premises and leads to a general claim.

Deductive reasoning builds a conclusion from accepted premises or general principles.

ppeals are a major form of support in argumentation. They call on the reader's sense it of logic, character, emotion, need, or value,

SCENARIOS are fictional or hypothetical examples.

ILLUSTRATIONS are graphic descriptions or representations of an idea.

mples are specific occurrences of a p

vidence is a type of support that already exists, unlike appeals, which are created by a writer,

FACTS are agreed-upon bits of knowledge that do not require further support in an argument.

AUTHORITIES are experts who offer specialized knowledge.

ANECDOTES are short accounts of a particular event or incident.

grounds or proofs,

apposilive,

curmudgeonly

spleen

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planities

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puritanical

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sigilla perparvula

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disposite

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divaricari

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gloaming

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loci

guile

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angular

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glissades

meristem

foments

irradiated

marginalia

derrick

grove

going back to find something they found before

wasteful

conflict minerals

garments

arcana

NewsNightly NewsMeet the PressDatelineMSNBCTODAYSearchSponsored ByHalf of women in STEM have experienced gender discrimination at work, study finds Share this —U.S. newsHalf of women in STEM have experienced gender discrimination at work, study finds An Assistant Professor of Genetics and Developmental Biology works on stem cells.Spencer Platt / Getty Images filemps._execAd("interstitial");Breaking News EmailsGet breaking news alerts and special reports. The news and stories that matter, delivered weekday mornings.SUBSCRIBEJan. 9, 2018 / 2:26 PM CST / Updated Jan. 9, 2018 / 2:26 PM CSTBy Elizabeth ChuckHalf of all women working in science, technology, engineering and math have experienced gender discrimination at work, according to a new study released the day after a disgraced Google engineer filed a lawsuit claiming white conservative men are the true victims of Silicon Valley.James Damore was fired from Google after writing a 10-page memo citing women's "neuroticism" as a reason there are fewer female workers in high-stress jobs at the search giant. The lawsuit he filed Monday argues that Google was so overly concerned with filling gender and racial quotas that it was hurting male employees as well as potential male employees.Video Will Begin In...3Fired Google engineer James Damore defends his manifesto about diversityAug. 10, 201702:34But a study out on Tuesday from the Pew Research Center, which polled more than 4,900 workers in the U.S., found that in the traditionally male-dominated fields of science, technology, engineering and math (STEM), only 19 percent of men said they had experienced gender discrimination at work, versus 50 percent of women.mps._execAd("boxinline");In certain STEM subsets, the proportion of women reporting discrimination was even higher: 78 percent of those who work in majority-male workplaces reported gender discrimination, followed by 74 percent of those working in computer jobs.Even outside of STEM, the numbers were high, with 41 percent of women in non-STEM jobs saying they've dealt with discrimination, the Pew study found."The challenges that women in STEM face often echo the challenges of all working women," said Cary Funk, lead author of the report and Pew's director of science and society research. "What the study does is take a broad-based look at the issues facing the STEM workforce. I think they really speak to the complex issues surrounding diversity in the workplace."The Pew study, which was conducted last July and August, before Hollywood's sexual misconduct scandal led to a national reckoning, also polled women on sexual harassment. Both groups were equally likely to say they had experienced sexual harassment at work — 22 percent.mps._execAd("boxinline",0,1,false);Both groups were less likely than their male counterparts to think that women are "usually treated fairly" when it comes to opportunities for promotion and advancement.RecommendedVideo Will Begin In...3Penny Marshall, famed actress and comedian, dead at 75Video Will Begin In...3Actress Penny Marshall dead at 75Damore's viewpoint, both in and outside of Google, is disputed. Google faces a separate suit filed by three women who allege the company pays women less than men for similar work and gives them less opportunity for promotions, bonuses and raises — a claim Google denies.Stephanie Newby, the CEO of Crimson Hexagon, an artificial intelligence company that provides consumer insights based on publicly available data, said she was "not at all surprised" by Pew's findings.In 2004, Newby founded Golden Seeds, an investment firm that provides capital to women-led businesses. At Crimson Hexagon, she said she has made a point of hiring and promoting qualified female candidates after seeing first-hand the challenges that women entrepreneurs and women in male-oriented jobs face.mps._execAd("boxinline",0,2,false);"We need environments where women can thrive, not be cornered about how they look or have to think about the kinds of things that make them worry about being different or trying to prove themselves, because so much energy can be expended on that instead of getting the job done," she said. 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The Smart Watch Every Man In United States Has Been Waiting For!Tact WatchUndoU.S. newsSenate passes sweeping criminal justice reform billThe House is expected to take up the Senate version of the bill at a later date before sending it to the president.Senate Majority Leader Republican Mitch McConnell speaks during a news conference on negotiations to avoid a partial shutdown of the federal government on Capitol Hill on Dec. 18, 2018.Michael Reynolds / EPABreaking News EmailsGet breaking news alerts and special reports. The news and stories that matter, delivered weekday mornings.SUBSCRIBEDec. 18, 2018 / 8:02 PM CST / Updated 8:38 PM CSTBy Rebecca Shabad and Phil HelselWASHINGTON — The Senate passed a huge criminal law reform bill on Tuesday night, seizing on bipartisan support for the broadest set of changes to federal crime statutes in a generation.A rare coalition of conservatives, liberals, activists, prosecutors and defense attorneys — spanning the political spectrum — pushed senators to pass the "First Step Act" by a final vote of 87-12.mps._execAd("boxinline",0,3,false);The House is expected to take up the Senate version of the bill at a later date. The House passed a similar version of the bill back in May by a wide margin, 360-59.President Donald Trump announced in November that he backs the legislation.Supporters of the bill claim that changes passed in the Senate would make America's criminal justice system fairer, reduce overcrowding and save taxpayer dollars — much to the benefit of drug and non-violent offenders.The bill would not affect state prisons. It only covers federal prisoners, who make up less than 10 percent of America's prison population.mps._execAd("boxinline",0,4,false);Trump quickly jumped on Twitter to hail the bill’s passage, and said "America is the greatest Country in the world and my job is to fight for ALL citizens, even those who have made mistakes.""This will keep our communities safer, and provide hope and a second chance, to those who earn it. In addition to everything else, billions of dollars will be saved. I look forward to signing this into law!” the president tweeted.Durbin: Kushner 'very important partner' in passing criminal justice reform billDec. 18, 201802:44The Senate bill overcame late obstacles by Sens. Tom Cotton, R-Ark., and John Kennedy, R-La.RecommendedSchool district police officer hit and run caught on cameraMcConnell convinced government shutdown won't happenCotton railed against the First Step Act as a "jailbreak" and said too many crimes were being included to allow prisoners consideration for early release.mps._execAd("boxinline",0,5,false);Sen. Chuck Grassley, R-Iowa, in urging senators to reject an amendment sponsored by Cotton, said “this law is centered towards those people that are the least violent people that are in prison already," and that “we’re only going to help low-level offenders.""Let's see if we can keep our bipartisan coalition together, to pass a bill that the president said that he is ready to sign," Grassley said. The amendment was defeated.A major provision of the bill gives judges more leeway to diverge from strict mandatory minimum sentences for nonviolent drug offenders with criminal histories.House Speaker Paul Ryan, R-Wisc., tweeted after the Senate vote: "Criminal justice reform is about giving more Americans a chance at redemption. The House looks forward to sending it to the president to become law."Rebecca ShabadRebecca Shabad is a congressional reporter for NBC News, based in Washington.Phil HelselPhil Helsel is a reporter for NBC News.David K. Li and Frank Thorp V contributed.MORE FROM newsAboutContactCareersPrivacy policyTerms of ServiceSiteMapAdvertiseAdChoices© 2018 NBC UNIVERSAL