这就造成了全社会都抱定一个信心，想要考上好大学、要过都市白领的生活、要去一线城市等等。如果十几亿人都相信只有一种好的生活方式，那么这种同质化的思想就会与客观事实脱节。更进一步分析，其实十几亿人形成的这一同质化的社会意识，本质上是少数精英的意识，使得剩余的90%的人认为自己不值得以当前的生活方式去生活。这就造成了大多数人都对自己当下的生活从本质上不满意。我称之为"悬浮"状态，也就是对自我的否定。这是当前中国人焦虑的最主要原因，大家都千方百计想过上"别人的生活"。

problem of defining social science

e hard scientist doesis to say that he "stipulates his usage"-that is, he informs youwhat terms are essential to his argument and how he is goingto use them. Such stipulations usually occur at the beginningof the book, in the form of definitions, postulates, axioms, andso forth. Since stipulation of usage is characteristic of thesefields, it has been said that they are like games or have a"game structure."

Nor does the cycles thesis have much to say about what social scientists call policy entrenchment—the way new policies outlast the coalition that created them.

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Outline of academic disciplines

Units of analysis, then, are those things we examine in arder to create summary descriptions of ali such units and to explain differences among them

Units of Analysis

A given variable can sornetimes be measured at different levels. When in doubt, researchers should use the highest leve! of rneasurement ap-propriate to that variable so they can capture the greatest amount of information.

The Importance of Variable Names

Conceptions, Concepts, and Reality

Checklist: Theoretical Framework

Concepts often have multiple definitions, so the theoretical framework involves clearly defining what you mean by each term

In your thesis or dissertation, the theoretical framework is where you define, discuss and evaluate theories relevant to your research problem.

Sample theoretical framework

Conceptualization is the process of specifying observations and measurements that give concepts definite meaning for the purposes of a research study.

Concepts are constructs; they represent the agreed-on meanings we assign to terms

Concepts are mental irnages we use as sumrnary devices for bringing together observations and experiences that seem to have something in corn-mon. We use terms or labels to reference these concepts

Conceptualization, Operationalization, and Measurement

Research Design

The theoretical framework: what and how?

Liberal and Conservative Representations of the Good Society: A (Social) Structural Topic Modeling Approach

It is generally agreed that literature surveys and descriptive compilations do not meet the contribution-to-knowledge re-quirement for the dissertation

Positivist versus postpositivist.

Experimental versus descriptive.

Quantitative versus qualitative.

NEW OR IMPROVED ANALYSIS Analysis may be based on existing evidence or include new data.

The evidence may be collected by an experiment, simulation, observations, questionnaire, interviews, or measurements.

The additive contribution of a dissertation may arise from 1. new or improved evidence; 2. new or improved methodology; 3. new or improved analysis; 4. new or improved concepts or theories.

The dissertation should be based on a significant question, problem, or hypothesis.

Different approaches to testing of important results. If a researcher has reported interesting results with one research technique and a given research population, a doctoral student may consider replicating the experiment, altering either the research technique or the research population.

Writers of disserta-tions commonly describe further research that needs to be done.

If there is likely to be a continuing interest, either academically or otherwise on the topic, then a student can continué to maintin scholarly capability in the área and continué to be a significant authority on the subject.

A research project will typicaliy have more than one potential outcome. For example, a research experiment may fail to dis-prove the nuil hypothesis, it may disprove it, or it may be incon-clusive.

The exploratory investigation, definition of problem, and writing normally take about half of the total time.

If no theory base can be identified, the topic should be rejected

Observations lead to theory to classify, explain, and predict the observations.

Research needed and interesting

In reading dissertations, the student should begin to formúlate a general understanding of the structure and scope of a disserta-tion, and the meaning of contribution to knowledge as applied to doctoral dissertations.

The Selection of a Dissertation Topic

. To summarize: Your aim is to explain 1. what you are writing about —I am working on the topic of... 2. what you don't know about it—because / want tofind out... 3. why you want your reader to know and care about it—m order to help my reader understand better...

add a second indirect question that explains why you asked your first question.

When you add that because I want tofind out how/why/whether clause, you state why you are pursuing your topic: to answer a question important to you.

because I want to find out who/what/when/where/whether/ why/how .

start by naming your project:

SO WHAT?

If you are an experienced researcher, look for questions that other researchers ask but don't answer.

How does your topic fit into the context of a larger structure or function as part of a larger system?

Ask about the History of Your Topic

So the best way to begin working on your focused topic is not to find all the information you can on it, but to formúlate questions that direct you to just that information you need to answer them

If a writer asks no specific question worth asking, he can offer no specific answer worth supporting.

Caution: Don't narrow your topic so much that you can't find information on it

We narrowed those topics by adding words and phrases, but of a special kind: conflict, description, contribution, and developing. Those nouns are derived from verbs expressing actions or relation-ships: to conflict, to describe, to contribute, and to develop. Lacking such "action" words, your topic is a .static thing.

A topic is probably too broad if you can state it in four or five words

Few experi-enced researchers trust Wikipedia, so under no circumstances cite it as a source of evidence (unless your topic is Wikipedia itself).

Google your topic,

Once you have a list of topics, choose the one or two that inter-est you most and explore their research potential. Do this:

Start by listing as many interests as you can that you'd like to explore.

But also ask yourself: What interests me about this tapie? What would interest others?

Some questions raise problems; others do not.

But other questions may intrigue only the researcher:

A subject is a broad área of knowledge (e.g., climate change), while a topic is a specific interest within that área (e.g., the effect of climate change on migratory birds).

As you begin a research project, you will want to distinguish a topic from a sub-ject.

From Topics to Questions

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