1. Last 7 days
  2. www.molvis.org www.molvis.org
    Oligodendrocyte death, neuroinflammation, and the effects of minocycline in a rodent model of nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (rNAION)
    10
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    molvis.org/molvis/v23/963/
  3. www.life-science-alliance.org www.life-science-alliance.org
    Rbfox1 is required for myofibril development and maintaining fiber type–specific isoform expression in Drosophila muscles
    24
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    life-science-alliance.org/content/5/4/e202101342
  4. human.libretexts.org human.libretexts.org
    1.1: What is Literature?
    2
    2. phslinhh 06 Jan 2026
      Part of what makes analyzing literature so fun is that it means the definition of literature is always up for debate! This is especially important given the history of the canon.

      great value when we recall what is literature means

    Visit annotations in context

    Annotators

    URL

    human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Literature_and_Literacy/Literacy_and_Critical_Thinking/Writing_and_Critical_Thinking_Through_Literature_(Ringo_and_Kashyap)/01:_Introduction/1.01:_What_is_Literature
  5. cghuisunshine.github.io cghuisunshine.github.io
    04_Topic_1.2_PDF_decrypted.pdf
    15
    1. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      monohybrid cross

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — monohybrid cross (thorough explanation)

      1) What a monohybrid cross is (core idea)

      A monohybrid cross is a genetic cross that examines inheritance of ONE trait only between two parents.

      Mono = one Hybrid = genetic cross

      So:

      Monohybrid cross = a cross involving one trait

      2) What kind of trait is studied

      The single trait must have two contrasting forms, such as:

      • Tall vs short plants
      • Round vs wrinkled seeds
      • Purple vs white flowers

      Each trait is controlled by one gene with two alleles.

      3) How a monohybrid cross is shown

      A monohybrid cross is usually shown using a 2 × 2 Punnett square.

      Example:

      • T = tall (dominant)
      • t = short (recessive)

      Parents: Tt × Tt

      Possible offspring genotypes:

      • TT
      • Tt
      • Tt
      • tt

      4) Genotype and phenotype ratios (exam favorite)

      Genotype ratio

      • 1 TT : 2 Tt : 1 tt

      Phenotype ratio

      • 3 tall : 1 short

      📌 This 3:1 phenotype ratio is a classic result of a monohybrid cross involving complete dominance.

      5) Why monohybrid crosses are important

      Monohybrid crosses help students:

      • Understand dominant and recessive alleles
      • Learn genotype vs phenotype
      • Practice Punnett squares
      • Predict inheritance patterns

      They were essential in Mendel’s experiments with pea plants.

      6) When to use a monohybrid cross

      Use a monohybrid cross when:

      • Only one trait is being studied
      • Each parent contributes one allele for that trait
      • The problem does not involve codominance or incomplete dominance (unless stated)

      One-sentence exam summary

      A monohybrid cross studies the inheritance of a single trait using one gene and two alleles.

      中文 — monohybrid cross（单性状杂交） 详细解释

      1) 什么是单性状杂交（核心概念）

      单性状杂交是指： 只研究一个性状遗传情况的杂交实验。

      mono（单） + hybrid（杂交）

      2) 研究的性状特点

      该性状通常：

      • 由 一个基因控制
      • 有 两种对立表现 例如：
      • 高 / 矮
      • 圆 / 皱

      3) 单性状杂交如何表示

      通常使用 2×2 潘尼特方格。

      例子：

      • T = 高（显性）
      • t = 矮（隐性）

      父母：Tt × Tt

      后代基因型：

      • TT
      • Tt
      • Tt
      • tt

      4) 常见比例（考试必背）

      基因型比例

      • 1 : 2 : 1

      表现型比例

      • 3 : 1

      📌 这是孟德尔单性状杂交的经典结果。

      5) 单性状杂交的重要性

      • 帮助理解显性与隐性
      • 区分基因型和表现型
      • 是学习遗传学的基础

      一句话考试版总结

      单性状杂交是研究一个性状遗传规律的杂交实验。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 monohybrid vs dihybrid cross 整理成 Science 10 中英对照对比表、练习题或互动 Punnett 方格，非常适合系统复习。

    2. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      gamete

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — gamete (thorough explanation)

      1) What a gamete is (core idea)

      A gamete is a sex cell used in sexual reproduction. Gametes carry half the normal number of chromosomes and combine during fertilization to form a new organism.

      Gamete = a reproductive cell with half the chromosomes

      2) Types of gametes

      There are two main types:

      • Sperm → male gamete
      • Egg (ovum) → female gamete

      Each parent contributes one gamete to the offspring.

      3) Chromosome number (very important)

      Gametes are haploid (n), meaning they contain half the usual chromosome number.

      Example (humans):

      • Body cells: 46 chromosomes (diploid, 2n)
      • Gametes: 23 chromosomes (haploid, n)

      📌 This ensures that when fertilization occurs, the offspring has the correct chromosome number.

      4) How gametes are made — meiosis

      Gametes are produced by meiosis, a special type of cell division.

      Meiosis:

      • Reduces chromosome number by half
      • Produces genetically unique gametes
      • Creates variation through crossing over and independent assortment

      5) Gametes and fertilization

      During fertilization:

      • One sperm gamete fuses with one egg gamete
      • Forms a zygote
      • The zygote is diploid (2n) again

      6) Why gametes are important

      Gametes:

      • Allow sexual reproduction
      • Maintain correct chromosome numbers
      • Increase genetic variation
      • Enable inheritance of traits from both parents

      One-sentence exam summary

      A gamete is a haploid sex cell (sperm or egg) that combines with another during fertilization.

      中文 — gamete（配子） 详细解释

      1) 什么是配子（核心概念）

      配子（gamete）是用于有性生殖的细胞，只含有一半的染色体数目。

      配子 = 含一半染色体的生殖细胞

      2) 配子的类型

      • 精子 → 雄性配子
      • 卵子 → 雌性配子

      每个亲本提供 一个配子。

      3) 染色体数量（必考）

      配子是 单倍体（n）：

      • 人类体细胞：46 条染色体（2n）
      • 配子：23 条染色体（n）

      4) 配子如何形成 —— 减数分裂

      配子通过 减数分裂产生：

      • 染色体数减半
      • 形成遗传多样性
      • 后代基因组合不同

      5) 配子与受精

      • 精子 + 卵子 → 受精卵（zygote）
      • 受精卵恢复为 二倍体（2n）

      一句话考试版总结

      配子是含有一半染色体数的生殖细胞，用于有性生殖。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 gamete → meiosis → fertilization → zygote 整理成 Science 10 中英对照流程图或互动闪卡，非常适合系统复习与教学。

    3. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      self-pollinate.

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — self-pollinate / self-pollination (thorough explanation)

      1) What self-pollinate means (core idea)

      To self-pollinate means that a plant’s pollen fertilizes its own ovules. The pollen comes from the same flower or from another flower on the same plant.

      Self-pollinate = a plant fertilizes itself

      2) How self-pollination happens

      In flowering plants:

      • Pollen is produced in the anther
      • Ovules are located in the ovary
      • During self-pollination, pollen moves from the anther to the stigma of the same flower (or same plant)

      No wind, insects, or animals are required.

      3) Why some plants self-pollinate

      Self-pollination is useful because it:

      • Guarantees reproduction even if pollinators are absent
      • Preserves successful traits
      • Produces predictable offspring

      This is why self-pollinating plants are often used in genetics studies.

      4) Classic example (Science 10 context): peas

      Pea plants naturally self-pollinate because:

      • Their reproductive organs are enclosed
      • Pollen reaches the stigma before the flower opens

      This allows plants to produce offspring with very similar genotypes.

      5) Self-pollination vs cross-pollination (important comparison)

      | Feature | Self-pollination | Cross-pollination | | ---------------------- | ---------------- | ----------------- | | Pollen source | Same plant | Different plant | | Genetic variation | Low | High | | Offspring | Very similar | More diverse | | Depends on pollinators | No | Often yes |

      📌 Self-pollination increases genetic consistency, while cross-pollination increases variation.

      6) Advantages and disadvantages

      Advantages

      • Reliable reproduction
      • No need for pollinators
      • Stable traits

      Disadvantages

      • Less genetic diversity
      • Less ability to adapt to change

      One-sentence exam summary

      Self-pollination occurs when a plant’s pollen fertilizes ovules on the same plant, producing genetically similar offspring.

      中文 — self-pollinate（自花授粉） 详细解释

      1) 什么是自花授粉（核心概念）

      自花授粉是指： 花粉来自同一朵花或同一株植物，并完成受精过程。

      自花授粉 = 植物自己给自己授粉

      2) 自花授粉如何发生

      • 花粉产生于花药
      • 受精发生在雌蕊
      • 花粉直接从花药传到同一朵花的柱头（或同株另一朵花）

      不需要昆虫或风的帮助。

      3) 自花授粉的优点

      • 保证繁殖成功
      • 保持优良性状
      • 后代性状稳定

      4) 与异花授粉的对比（考试重点）

      | 类型 | 特点 | | ---- | ------ | | 自花授粉 | 遗传多样性低 | | 异花授粉 | 遗传多样性高 |

      一句话考试版总结

      自花授粉是指植物利用自身花粉完成受精的过程。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 self-pollination → cross-pollination → genetic variation 整理成 Science 10 中英对照图解或互动练习题，非常适合课堂与考试复习。

    4. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      pea

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — pea (thorough explanation, genetics focus)

      1) What a pea is (core idea)

      A pea is the small, round seed found inside a pea pod, produced by the pea plant. Peas are both a food crop and a classic model organism in genetics.

      Pea = a seed from a pea plant; widely used to study inheritance

      2) Peas in genetics (Science 10 key context)

      Pea plants were used by Gregor Mendel to discover the basic laws of inheritance.

      Why peas were ideal:

      • Easy to grow
      • Short generation time
      • Clear, contrasting traits
      • Can self-pollinate or be cross-pollinated by hand

      3) Common pea traits studied (exam favorites)

      Mendel studied traits with two clear forms, such as:

      | Trait | One form | Other form | | ------------ | -------- | ----------- | | Seed shape | Round | Wrinkled | | Seed color | Yellow | Green | | Flower color | Purple | White | | Pod shape | Inflated | Constricted | | Plant height | Tall | Short |

      These traits made it easy to observe dominant and recessive patterns.

      4) Peas and Punnett squares

      Pea traits are often used in Punnett square problems.

      Example:

      • R = round seeds (dominant)
      • r = wrinkled seeds (recessive)

      Cross: Rr × Rr

      Results:

      • Genotypes: RR, Rr, Rr, rr
      • Phenotypes: 3 round : 1 wrinkled

      5) Why peas are still used today

      Peas helped scientists understand:

      • Alleles
      • Dominant vs recessive inheritance
      • Genotype vs phenotype
      • Predictable trait ratios

      These principles apply to all sexually reproducing organisms, including humans.

      One-sentence exam summary

      Peas are seed plants used by Mendel to discover inheritance patterns because they have clear, contrasting traits.

      中文 — pea（豌豆） 详细解释（遗传学重点）

      1) 什么是豌豆（核心概念）

      豌豆（pea）是豌豆植物果荚中的种子，既是食物，也是遗传学研究中的经典材料。

      豌豆 = 常用于研究遗传规律的植物种子

      2) 豌豆在遗传学中的重要性

      孟德尔用豌豆发现了遗传的基本规律。

      豌豆适合研究的原因：

      • 容易种植
      • 生长周期短
      • 性状对比明显
      • 可自花授粉或人工杂交

      3) 常见研究性状（考试重点）

      | 性状 | 表现一 | 表现二 | | ---- | --- | --- | | 种子形状 | 圆 | 皱 | | 种子颜色 | 黄 | 绿 | | 花的颜色 | 紫 | 白 | | 豆荚形状 | 饱满 | 收缩 | | 植株高度 | 高 | 矮 |

      4) 豌豆与潘尼特方格

      豌豆性状常用于潘尼特方格题目，帮助预测后代表现。

      一句话考试版总结

      豌豆因性状清晰、易繁殖，被用于发现显性和隐性等遗传规律。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 pea traits → alleles → Punnett squares 整理成 Science 10 中英对照练习题或互动闪卡，非常适合系统复习。

    5. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      incomplete dominance

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — incomplete dominance (thorough explanation)

      1) What incomplete dominance means (core idea)

      Incomplete dominance is an inheritance pattern in which neither allele is completely dominant, so the heterozygous phenotype is an intermediate (blended) form of the two homozygous phenotypes.

      Incomplete dominance = blending of traits in heterozygotes

      2) How incomplete dominance works

      • Two different alleles affect the trait
      • In a heterozygous individual, both alleles partially influence the outcome
      • The result looks like a mix, not one trait hiding the other

      3) Classic example (Science 10 favorite): flower color

      Let:

      • R = red flowers
      • W = white flowers

      Cross: RR × WW

      Offspring:

      • RW → pink flowers

      📌 Pink is not a new allele; it’s the intermediate phenotype.

      4) Incomplete dominance in Punnett squares

      Parents: RW × RW

      Possible offspring:

      • RR → red
      • RW → pink
      • RW → pink
      • WW → white

      Phenotype ratio: 1 red : 2 pink : 1 white

      📌 Notice: phenotype ratio = genotype ratio in incomplete dominance.

      5) Incomplete dominance vs other patterns (very important)

      | Pattern | Heterozygous result | Example | | ------------------------ | ------------------------- | ------------------ | | Dominant–recessive | Dominant trait only | Brown eyes | | Incomplete dominance | Blended trait | Red × white → pink | | Codominance | Both traits fully visible | AB blood type |

      6) Why incomplete dominance matters

      Incomplete dominance:

      • Explains traits that don’t follow simple dominance
      • Increases visible variation in populations
      • Is common in plants, animals, and humans (for some traits)

      One-sentence exam summary

      Incomplete dominance occurs when heterozygous individuals show an intermediate, blended phenotype.

      中文 — incomplete dominance（不完全显性） 详细解释

      1) 什么是不完全显性（核心概念）

      不完全显性是指： 两个等位基因中没有一个完全显性，杂合体表现为中间型性状。

      不完全显性 = 性状混合表现

      2) 不完全显性的表现特点

      • 显性不能完全压制另一等位基因
      • 杂合体表现为中间状态
      • 性状不是“要么这个，要么那个”

      3) 经典例子（考试常考）

      花的颜色：

      • 红花（RR）
      • 白花（WW）

      杂交后：

      • RW → 粉红色花

      📌 粉红不是新基因，而是红和白的中间表现。

      4) 潘尼特方格中的不完全显性

      父母：RW × RW

      后代比例：

      • 1 红（RR）
      • 2 粉（RW）
      • 1 白（WW）

      👉 表现型比例 = 基因型比例

      5) 不完全显性 vs 共显性（重点区分）

      | 遗传方式 | 表现结果 | | ----- | ---------- | | 不完全显性 | 中间型（混合） | | 共显性 | 两种性状同时清楚出现 |

      一句话考试版总结

      不完全显性指杂合体表现为两种性状的中间型。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 dominant / recessive / incomplete dominance / codominance 整理成 Science 10 中英对照对比表、潘尼特方格练习或互动闪卡，非常适合系统复习与教学。

    6. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      heterozygous

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — heterozygous (thorough explanation)

      1) What heterozygous means (core idea)

      Heterozygous describes a genotype in which an organism has two different alleles for the same gene.

      Heterozygous = two different alleles (e.g., Aa)

      Each allele comes from a different parent.

      2) How heterozygous genotypes work

      • Genes come in pairs (alleles)
      • In a heterozygous genotype, one allele is different from the other
      • Often written as one capital letter and one lowercase letter

      Example:

      • A = dominant allele
      • a = recessive allele
      • Aa = heterozygous

      3) Trait expression in heterozygous individuals

      In simple dominance:

      • The dominant allele determines the phenotype
      • The recessive allele is present but not expressed

      Example:

      • Genotype: Aa
      • Phenotype: dominant trait

      📌 The recessive allele can still be passed to offspring.

      4) Heterozygous vs homozygous (important comparison)

      | Term | Alleles | Example | Trait shown | | ------------------------ | --------- | ------- | ------------------ | | Heterozygous | Different | Aa | Dominant (usually) | | Homozygous dominant | Same | AA | Dominant | | Homozygous recessive | Same | aa | Recessive |

      5) Heterozygous in Punnett squares (Science 10 focus)

      Punnett squares show how heterozygous parents pass on alleles.

      Example: Aa × Aa

      Possible offspring:

      • AA
      • Aa
      • Aa
      • aa

      Genotype ratio:

      • 1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa

      📌 Half the offspring are heterozygous (Aa).

      6) Why heterozygous matters

      Heterozygous individuals:

      • Increase genetic variation
      • Can be carriers of recessive traits
      • Help explain why traits may skip generations
      • Are important in evolution and population genetics

      One-sentence exam summary

      Heterozygous means having two different alleles for a gene.

      中文 — heterozygous（杂合子 / 杂合） 详细解释

      1) 什么是杂合（核心概念）

      Heterozygous（杂合）指的是： 同一性状的两个等位基因不相同。

      杂合 = 两个不同的等位基因

      常见形式：

      • Aa

      2) 杂合基因型如何表现

      • 一个等位基因来自父亲
      • 一个来自母亲
      • 通常是 一个显性 + 一个隐性

      例子：

      • Aa → 显性性状表现
      • 隐性基因被“隐藏”，但仍可遗传

      3) 杂合 vs 纯合（重点对比）

      | 类型 | 等位基因 | 示例 | | ---- | ---- | -- | | 杂合 | 不同 | Aa | | 纯合显性 | 相同 | AA | | 纯合隐性 | 相同 | aa |

      4) 潘尼特方格中的杂合

      父母：Aa × Aa

      后代可能为：

      • AA（纯合显性）
      • Aa（杂合）
      • aa（纯合隐性）

      比例：1 : 2 : 1

      一句话考试版总结

      杂合指一个性状的两个等位基因不同。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 heterozygous / homozygous / dominant / recessive / Punnett squares 整理成 Science 10 中英对照闪卡或互动练习，直接用于复习或课堂教学。

    7. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      homozygous

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — homozygous (thorough explanation)

      1) What homozygous means (core idea)

      Homozygous describes a genotype in which an organism has two identical alleles for a particular gene.

      Homozygous = same alleles + same alleles

      Common examples:

      • AA → homozygous dominant
      • aa → homozygous recessive

      2) Types of homozygous genotypes (Science 10 focus)

      A) Homozygous dominant

      • Genotype: AA
      • Phenotype: dominant trait shows
      • Example: Tall plant (if tall = dominant)

      B) Homozygous recessive

      • Genotype: aa
      • Phenotype: recessive trait shows
      • Example: Short plant (if short = recessive)

      📌 Recessive traits only appear when the genotype is homozygous recessive.

      3) Homozygous vs heterozygous (important comparison)

      | Term | Alleles | Example | Trait shown | | ---------------- | --------- | -------- | ------------------------------- | | Homozygous | Same | AA or aa | Dominant (AA) or recessive (aa) | | Heterozygous | Different | Aa | Dominant |

      4) Homozygous in Punnett squares

      Punnett squares often show homozygous outcomes.

      Example: Aa × Aa

      Possible offspring genotypes:

      • AA → homozygous dominant
      • Aa → heterozygous
      • aa → homozygous recessive

      Genotype ratio:

      • 1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa

      5) Why homozygous matters

      Homozygous genotypes:

      • Explain why recessive traits appear
      • Help predict inheritance patterns
      • Are important in genetics, breeding, and evolution
      • Can be linked to genetic disorders (if recessive)

      One-sentence exam summary

      Homozygous means having two identical alleles for a gene.

      中文 — homozygous（纯合子 / 纯合） 详细解释

      1) 什么是纯合（核心概念）

      Homozygous（纯合）指的是： 某一性状的两个等位基因完全相同。

      纯合 = 两个一样的等位基因

      常见形式：

      • AA（纯合显性）
      • aa（纯合隐性）

      2) 纯合的两种类型（考试重点）

      ① 纯合显性

      • 基因型：AA
      • 表现型：显性性状

      ② 纯合隐性

      • 基因型：aa
      • 表现型：隐性性状 📌 隐性性状只有在纯合隐性时才会出现

      3) 纯合 vs 杂合（对比）

      | 类型 | 等位基因 | 例子 | | -- | ---- | ----- | | 纯合 | 相同 | AA、aa | | 杂合 | 不同 | Aa |

      4) 潘尼特方格中的纯合

      父母：Aa × Aa

      后代可能为：

      • AA（纯合显性）
      • Aa（杂合）
      • aa（纯合隐性）

      比例：1 : 2 : 1

      一句话考试版总结

      纯合指一个性状的两个等位基因相同。

      如果你需要，我可以把 homozygous / heterozygous / dominant / recessive 整理成 Science 10 中英对照速记卡或互动练习，方便系统复习。

    8. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      genotype

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — genotype (thorough explanation)

      1) What genotype means (core idea)

      A genotype is an organism’s genetic makeup for a specific trait — the combination of alleles it has.

      Genotype = the alleles an organism carries

      Genotypes are usually written as letter pairs, such as:

      • AA
      • Aa
      • aa

      These letters represent genes, not physical appearance.

      2) Where genotypes come from

      • One allele comes from the mother
      • One allele comes from the father
      • Together, they form the genotype

      Genotypes are found on homologous chromosomes at the same gene location (locus).

      3) Common genotype types (Science 10 focus)

      Homozygous

      • Both alleles are the same
      • Examples: AA, aa

      Heterozygous

      • Alleles are different
      • Example: Aa

      4) Genotype vs phenotype (very important)

      | Term | What it means | Example | | ------------- | ---------------- | ---------- | | Genotype | Genetic makeup | Bb | | Phenotype | Observable trait | Brown eyes |

      📌 You inherit the genotype, but you observe the phenotype.

      5) Genotype in Punnett squares

      Punnett squares are used to predict possible genotypes of offspring.

      Example: Parents: Aa × Aa

      Possible genotypes:

      • AA
      • Aa
      • Aa
      • aa

      Genotype ratio:

      • 1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa

      6) Why genotype matters

      Genotype:

      • Determines which traits can appear
      • Explains why recessive traits can be hidden
      • Helps predict inheritance patterns
      • Is the basis of genetics and evolution

      One-sentence exam summary

      Genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism, represented by its allele combinations.

      中文 — genotype（基因型） 详细解释

      1) 什么是基因型（核心概念）

      基因型（genotype）是指生物体在某一性状上所拥有的等位基因组合。

      基因型 = 拥有的基因组合

      常见表示方式：

      • AA
      • Aa
      • aa

      2) 基因型从哪里来

      • 一个等位基因来自母亲
      • 一个来自父亲
      • 位于同源染色体的相同位置

      3) 基因型的类型（考试重点）

      纯合（homozygous）

      • AA、aa

      杂合（heterozygous）

      • Aa

      4) 基因型 vs 表现型（必考）

      | 项目 | 含义 | | --- | ------- | | 基因型 | 基因组合 | | 表现型 | 实际表现的性状 |

      📌 基因型决定潜力，表现型是结果。

      5) 潘尼特方格中的基因型

      父母：Aa × Aa

      后代可能的基因型：

      • AA（25%）
      • Aa（50%）
      • aa（25%）

      一句话考试版总结

      基因型是生物体所携带的等位基因组合。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 allele → genotype → phenotype → Punnett square 整理成 Science 10 中英对照速记卡 / 课堂练习 / HTML 互动内容，方便你系统复习。

    9. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      phenotype

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — phenotype (thorough explanation)

      1) What phenotype means (core idea)

      A phenotype is the observable characteristics of an organism—what you can see or measure.

      Phenotype = the physical expression of genes

      Examples include:

      • Eye color
      • Height
      • Blood type
      • Flower color
      • Ability to roll the tongue (in simple genetics examples)

      2) What determines phenotype

      A phenotype is shaped by two factors:

      1. Genotype (the genetic makeup)
      2. Environment (external conditions)

      Phenotype = genotype + environment

      📌 This is why people with the same genes can sometimes look different.

      3) Phenotype vs genotype (must-know distinction)

      | Term | Meaning | Example | | ------------- | --------------------------- | ---------- | | Genotype | The alleles an organism has | Bb | | Phenotype | The trait that appears | Brown eyes |

      You inherit the genotype, but you observe the phenotype.

      4) Phenotype in Punnett squares (Science 10 focus)

      Punnett squares predict possible phenotypes of offspring.

      Example:

      • B = brown eyes (dominant)
      • b = blue eyes (recessive)

      Possible genotypes → phenotypes:

      • BB → brown eyes
      • Bb → brown eyes
      • bb → blue eyes

      📌 Phenotype ratios often differ from genotype ratios.

      5) Environmental effects on phenotype

      Even with the same genotype, environment can change phenotype:

      • Height → genes + nutrition
      • Skin color → genes + sunlight
      • Muscle size → genes + exercise

      This shows phenotype is not fixed by genes alone.

      6) Why phenotype matters

      Phenotypes:

      • Explain variation among individuals
      • Are what natural selection acts on
      • Help scientists study inheritance patterns

      One-sentence exam summary

      Phenotype is the observable traits of an organism resulting from the interaction of genes and environment.

      中文 — phenotype（表现型） 详细解释

      1) 什么是表现型（核心概念）

      表现型（phenotype）是指生物能够被观察到的性状或特征。

      表现型 = 基因表现出来的外在结果

      例如：

      • 眼睛颜色
      • 身高
      • 血型
      • 花的颜色

      2) 表现型由什么决定

      表现型由两部分共同决定：

      1. 基因型（genotype）
      2. 环境因素

      表现型 = 基因型 + 环境

      3) 基因型 vs 表现型（必考）

      | 概念 | 含义 | | --- | -------- | | 基因型 | 拥有的等位基因 | | 表现型 | 实际表现出的性状 |

      4) 潘尼特方格中的表现型

      潘尼特方格用来预测：

      • 后代可能出现的表现型
      • 各性状出现的概率

      5) 环境对表现型的影响

      • 营养影响身高
      • 阳光影响肤色
      • 训练影响肌肉

      一句话考试版总结

      表现型是基因与环境共同作用下表现出来的性状。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 genotype / phenotype / allele / Punnett square 整理成 Science 10 中英对照闪卡或互动练习，方便系统复习。

    10. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      recessive

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — recessive (thorough explanation)

      1) What recessive means (core idea)

      Recessive describes an allele whose effect is hidden when a dominant allele is present. A recessive trait is expressed only when both alleles are recessive.

      Recessive = shows only when two recessive alleles are present

      2) How recessive alleles work

      • Each individual has two alleles for a gene (one from each parent)
      • If at least one dominant allele is present, the dominant trait appears
      • The recessive trait appears only in homozygous recessive individuals

      📌 Genetics notation:

      • A = dominant allele
      • a = recessive allele

      | Genotype | Trait shown | | -------- | --------------------------- | | AA | Dominant | | Aa | Dominant (recessive hidden) | | aa | Recessive |

      3) Examples of recessive traits

      Common textbook examples:

      • Blue eyes (recessive to brown)
      • Attached earlobes
      • Certain genetic disorders (e.g., cystic fibrosis)

      📌 A person can carry a recessive allele without showing the trait.

      4) Recessive traits in Punnett squares (Science 10 focus)

      Punnett squares help predict recessive traits.

      Example: Parents: Aa × Aa

      Possible offspring:

      • AA
      • Aa
      • Aa
      • aa

      👉 25% chance of showing the recessive trait (aa)

      5) Recessive vs dominant (key contrast)

      | Feature | Dominant | Recessive | | ----------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------- | | Expression | Shows with 1 allele | Shows with 2 alleles | | Hidden by other allele? | No | Yes | | Written as | Capital letter | Lowercase letter |

      6) Why recessive traits matter

      Recessive traits:

      • Explain why traits can skip generations
      • Help identify carriers
      • Are important in genetic counseling
      • Increase genetic variation in populations

      One-sentence exam summary

      A recessive allele is expressed only when two copies are present and is hidden by a dominant allele.

      中文 — recessive（隐性） 详细解释

      1) 什么是隐性（核心概念）

      隐性（recessive）指的是一种等位基因，当与显性等位基因同时存在时，不会表现出来。

      隐性 = 只有在两个隐性等位基因同时存在时才表现

      2) 隐性等位基因如何表现

      • 每个性状由 两个等位基因控制
      • 只要有一个显性等位基因，显性性状就出现
      • 隐性性状必须是纯合隐性（aa）才会表现

      3) 隐性性状的例子

      • 蓝色眼睛
      • 连着的耳垂
      • 某些遗传疾病（如囊性纤维化）

      📌 携带者：有隐性基因，但不表现性状。

      4) 潘尼特方格中的隐性（考试重点）

      父母：Aa × Aa

      结果：

      • 25% aa（表现隐性性状）
      • 50% Aa（携带者）
      • 25% AA

      5) 隐性 vs 显性（对比）

      | 项目 | 显性 | 隐性 | | ---- | ------ | ---- | | 表现条件 | 有一个就表现 | 必须两个 | | 书写方式 | 大写字母 | 小写字母 |

      一句话考试版总结

      隐性性状只有在两个隐性等位基因同时存在时才会表现。

      如果你需要，我可以把 dominant / recessive / codominance / incomplete dominance 整理成 Science 10 中英对照速记表或练习题，帮助你快速区分考点。

    11. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      codominance

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — codominance (thorough explanation)

      1) What codominance means (core idea)

      Codominance is a pattern of inheritance in which both alleles in a heterozygous individual are fully and equally expressed.

      Codominance = both alleles show at the same time

      Neither allele is dominant or recessive over the other.

      2) How codominance looks (key idea)

      In codominance:

      • You do not get a blend
      • You see both traits clearly and separately

      📌 This is different from incomplete dominance, where traits blend.

      3) Classic examples of codominance (Science 10 favorites)

      A) Roan cattle

      • Red allele + White allele
      • Result: Roan coat with both red hairs and white hairs
      • Not pink → red and white are both visible

      B) Human blood type (AB)

      • Alleles: IA and IB
      • Genotype: IAIB
      • Phenotype: AB blood type
      • Both A and B antigens appear on red blood cells

      4) Codominance vs incomplete dominance (very important)

      | Feature | Codominance | Incomplete Dominance | | ----------------- | -------------------- | -------------------------- | | Allele expression | Both fully expressed | Blended | | Appearance | Both traits visible | Mixed/intermediate | | Example | AB blood type | Pink flowers (red × white) |

      📌 AB blood type = codominance 📌 Pink flowers = incomplete dominance

      5) Codominance in Punnett squares

      Codominance still uses Punnett squares, but:

      • Heterozygous offspring show both traits
      • No allele “hides” the other

      Example:

      • Alleles: R (red), W (white)
      • RW → red + white hairs

      6) Why codominance matters

      Codominance:

      • Explains traits that don’t follow simple dominant/recessive rules
      • Increases visible genetic variation
      • Is important in medical genetics (blood transfusions)

      One-sentence exam summary

      Codominance occurs when both alleles in a heterozygous individual are fully expressed at the same time.

      中文 — codominance（共显性） 详细解释

      1) 什么是共显性（核心概念）

      共显性（codominance）指的是： 两个不同的等位基因在杂合体中都会完全表现出来。

      共显性 = 两个等位基因同时、完整地表现

      2) 共显性的表现特点

      • 不会混合
      • 两种性状同时清楚可见

      📌 和不完全显性不同，共显性没有中间型。

      3) 常见例子（考试常考）

      A) 花牛（roan cattle）

      • 红色等位基因 + 白色等位基因
      • 结果：红毛和白毛同时存在

      B) 人类 AB 血型

      • 等位基因：IA 和 IB
      • 基因型：IAIB
      • 表现型：AB 型血
      • A 抗原和 B 抗原同时存在

      4) 共显性 vs 不完全显性（重点对比）

      | 特点 | 共显性 | 不完全显性 | | -- | ------- | ----- | | 表现 | 两种性状都出现 | 性状混合 | | 结果 | 同时可见 | 中间型 | | 例子 | AB 血型 | 红×白→粉 |

      5) 共显性在潘尼特方格中的体现

      • 杂合体表现两种性状
      • 没有“显性压制隐性”

      一句话考试版总结

      共显性是指杂合体中两个等位基因同时完全表现的遗传方式。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 dominance / incomplete dominance / codominance 整理成 Science 10 中英对照表或互动练习题，非常适合考试快速区分。

    12. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      alleles

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — alleles (thorough explanation)

      1) What alleles are (core idea)

      Alleles are different versions of the same gene. They control variations of a trait, such as eye color or flower color.

      Allele = one version of a gene

      Each gene can have two or more alleles, but an individual organism usually carries two alleles per gene (one from each parent).

      2) Where alleles are found

      • Genes are located on chromosomes
      • Alleles sit at the same position (locus) on homologous chromosomes
      • One allele comes from the mother
      • One allele comes from the father

      📌 This is why offspring show traits from both parents.

      3) Example of alleles (simple)

      Trait: Seed color

      • Y = yellow
      • y = green

      Possible allele combinations:

      • YY
      • Yy
      • yy

      These combinations affect the trait that appears.

      4) Dominant vs recessive alleles (Science 10 focus)

      Dominant allele

      • Shown with a capital letter (A)
      • Expressed if at least one copy is present

      Recessive allele

      • Shown with a lowercase letter (a)
      • Expressed only if two copies are present

      📌 Example:

      • Aa → dominant trait shows
      • aa → recessive trait shows

      5) Alleles, genotype, and phenotype (key relationship)

      | Term | Meaning | Example | | --------- | ------------------ | ---------- | | Allele | Version of a gene | A or a | | Genotype | Allele combination | Aa | | Phenotype | Physical trait | Brown eyes |

      Alleles determine the genotype, which determines the phenotype.

      6) Alleles in Punnett squares

      Punnett squares:

      • Show how alleles from parents combine
      • Predict possible offspring genotypes
      • Estimate trait probabilities

      📌 Example: Parents: Aa × Aa

      • Possible offspring: AA, Aa, Aa, aa

      7) Why alleles are important

      Alleles:

      • Explain variation within a species
      • Help predict inheritance patterns
      • Are the basis of genetics and evolution
      • Allow populations to adapt over time

      One-sentence exam summary

      Alleles are different versions of the same gene that determine variations in traits.

      中文 — alleles（等位基因） 详细解释

      1) 什么是等位基因（核心概念）

      等位基因（alleles）是指同一基因的不同版本，决定同一性状的不同表现。

      等位基因 = 同一基因的不同形式

      2) 等位基因在哪里

      • 基因位于染色体上
      • 等位基因位于同源染色体的相同位置
      • 一个来自母亲，一个来自父亲

      3) 等位基因举例

      性状：豌豆高度

      • T = 高
      • t = 矮

      组合可能是：

      • TT
      • Tt
      • tt

      4) 显性与隐性等位基因（必考）

      • 显性等位基因：只要有一个就会表现
      • 隐性等位基因：必须两个都有才表现

      📌 Tt → 显性性状 📌 tt → 隐性性状

      5) 等位基因与性状的关系

      • 等位基因 → 基因型
      • 基因型 → 表现型

      一句话考试版总结

      等位基因是控制同一性状的不同基因形式。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 alleles → genotype → phenotype → Punnett squares 整理成 Science 10 中英对照闪卡或互动练习，直接用于复习或教学。

    13. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      traits

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — traits (thorough explanation)

      1) What traits are (core idea)

      Traits are characteristics or features of an organism. They describe how an organism looks, behaves, or functions.

      Trait = a characteristic of a living thing

      Traits can be:

      • Inherited (passed down from parents)
      • Influenced by the environment
      • Or a combination of both

      2) Types of traits

      A) Inherited (genetic) traits

      These traits are controlled by genes and passed from parents to offspring.

      Examples:

      • Eye color
      • Hair color and texture
      • Blood type
      • Natural height potential

      📌 These traits are present from birth.

      B) Acquired (environmental) traits

      These traits develop due to life experiences or environment.

      Examples:

      • Suntan
      • Muscle strength from exercise
      • Scars
      • Language spoken

      📌 These traits are not inherited genetically.

      C) Traits influenced by both genes and environment

      Many traits result from both heredity and environment.

      Examples:

      • Height (genes + nutrition)
      • Intelligence (genes + education)
      • Athletic ability (genes + training)

      3) Traits in genetics (Science 10 focus)

      In genetics, traits are:

      • Controlled by genes
      • Each gene may have different alleles
      • Alleles can be dominant or recessive

      📌 Example:

      • Brown eyes (dominant)
      • Blue eyes (recessive)

      Punnett squares are used to predict traits in offspring.

      4) Genotype vs phenotype (important distinction)

      | Term | Meaning | Example | | --------- | ------------------- | ---------- | | Genotype | Genetic makeup | Bb | | Phenotype | Physical expression | Brown eyes |

      📌 Traits are what you see (phenotype), based on genes (genotype).

      5) Why traits matter

      Traits:

      • Explain similarities and differences between organisms
      • Help scientists study inheritance
      • Are the basis of natural selection and evolution

      One-sentence exam summary

      Traits are characteristics of organisms that can be inherited, acquired, or influenced by both genes and environment.

      中文 — traits（性状 / 特征） 详细解释

      1) 什么是性状（核心概念）

      性状（traits）是指生物表现出来的特征或特点。

      性状 = 生物的特征

      2) 性状的类型

      ① 遗传性状

      由基因决定，从父母传给子女。

      例子：

      • 眼睛颜色
      • 头发颜色
      • 血型

      ② 获得性状

      由环境或经历造成。

      例子：

      • 晒黑
      • 肌肉增强
      • 疤痕

      ③ 遗传 + 环境共同影响

      • 身高
      • 学习能力
      • 运动能力

      3) 遗传学中的性状（考试重点）

      • 性状由基因控制
      • 基因有不同等位基因
      • 等位基因有显性和隐性

      4) 基因型 vs 表现型

      | 概念 | 含义 | | --- | ---- | | 基因型 | 基因组合 | | 表现型 | 外在性状 |

      一句话考试版总结

      性状是生物的特征，由遗传和环境共同决定。

      如果你需要，我可以把 traits / inherited traits / acquired traits / Punnett squares 做成 Science 10 中英对照闪卡或课堂练习题，直接用于教学或复习。

    14. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      Punnett squares

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — Punnett squares (thorough explanation)

      1) What Punnett squares are (core idea)

      Punnett squares are simple diagrams used in genetics to predict the possible genetic outcomes of offspring from two parents.

      Punnett square = a tool to predict inherited traits

      They help scientists and students see:

      • Possible genotypes (gene combinations)
      • Possible phenotypes (physical traits)
      • Probability of each outcome

      2) Why Punnett squares are used

      Punnett squares are used to:

      • Understand hereditary inheritance
      • Predict offspring traits
      • Explain why siblings can look different
      • Show how dominant and recessive genes work

      They do not guarantee results — they show likelihood.

      3) Key terms you must know (Science 10)

      | Term | Meaning | | --------- | -------------------------------------------- | | Gene | Section of DNA that controls a trait | | Allele | Different forms of a gene (e.g., A or a) | | Dominant | Masks another allele (A) | | Recessive | Only shows if both alleles are recessive (a) | | Genotype | Genetic makeup (AA, Aa, aa) | | Phenotype | Physical appearance (tall, short, etc.) |

      4) How a Punnett square works (step by step)

      Example: One trait (monohybrid cross)

      Trait: Plant height

      • T = tall (dominant)
      • t = short (recessive)

      Parents: Tt × Tt

      Step 1: Draw a 2×2 square Step 2: Put one parent’s alleles across the top (T, t) Step 3: Put the other parent’s alleles down the side (T, t) Step 4: Fill in the boxes

      Resulting genotypes:

      • TT
      • Tt
      • Tt
      • tt

      5) Reading the results

      Genotype ratio

      • 1 TT : 2 Tt : 1 tt

      Phenotype ratio

      • 3 tall : 1 short

      📌 Even though only 1 box is tt, that still means a 25% chance of short offspring.

      6) Types of Punnett squares

      A) Monohybrid cross

      • One trait
      • 2×2 square
      • Most common in Science 10

      B) Dihybrid cross (advanced)

      • Two traits at once
      • 4×4 square
      • Shows independent assortment

      7) Limits of Punnett squares

      Punnett squares:

      • Assume genes assort randomly
      • Do not account for environment
      • Work best for simple traits

      One-sentence exam summary

      Punnett squares are diagrams used to predict the probability of genetic traits in offspring.

      中文 — Punnett squares（潘尼特方格） 详细解释

      1) 什么是潘尼特方格（核心概念）

      潘尼特方格是一种遗传学工具，用来预测父母基因组合在后代中可能出现的结果。

      潘尼特方格 = 预测遗传结果的表格

      2) 为什么要用潘尼特方格

      潘尼特方格可以帮助我们：

      • 理解遗传规律
      • 预测后代性状
      • 解释兄弟姐妹的差异
      • 学习显性与隐性

      3) 必须掌握的词汇（考试重点）

      | 英文 | 中文 | | --------- | ---- | | Gene | 基因 | | Allele | 等位基因 | | Dominant | 显性 | | Recessive | 隐性 | | Genotype | 基因型 | | Phenotype | 表现型 |

      4) 潘尼特方格如何使用（一步一步）

      例子：豌豆高度

      • T = 高（显性）
      • t = 矮（隐性）

      父母：Tt × Tt

      填表后得到：

      • TT
      • Tt
      • Tt
      • tt

      5) 结果解读

      基因型比例

      • 1 TT : 2 Tt : 1 tt

      表现型比例

      • 3 高 : 1 矮

      📌 这表示： 25% 矮，75% 高（概率，不是保证）

      6) 潘尼特方格的类型

      • 单性状杂交（2×2）
      • 双性状杂交（4×4，高阶内容）

      一句话考试版总结

      潘尼特方格用于预测遗传性状在后代中出现的概率。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 Punnett square → allele → genotype → phenotype 整理成 Science 10 中英对照闪卡 / 课堂练习 / HTML 互动方格，直接给学生用。

    Visit annotations in context

    Annotators

    URL

    cghuisunshine.github.io/Science/BC_Science_Connections_10_split/04_Topic_1.2_PDF_decrypted.pdf
  6. www.biorxiv.org www.biorxiv.org
    Wnt10b signaling regulates replication stress-induced chromosomal instability in human cancer
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    biorxiv.org/lookup/doi/10.1101/2025.04.23.650265
  7. www.biorxiv.org www.biorxiv.org
    An integrated stress response-independent role of GCN2 prevents excessive ribosome biogenesis and mRNA translation
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    biorxiv.org/lookup/doi/10.1101/2024.09.10.611650
  8. www.biorxiv.org www.biorxiv.org
    Propionate reinforces epithelial identity and reduces aggressiveness of non-small cell lung carcinoma via chromatin remodelling
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    biorxiv.org/lookup/doi/10.1101/2023.01.19.524677
  9. cghuisunshine.github.io cghuisunshine.github.io
    03_Topic_1.1_PDF_decrypted.pdf
    27
    1. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      complementary bases.

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — complementary bases (thorough explanation)

      1) What complementary bases means (core idea)

      Complementary bases are pairs of nitrogenous bases that fit together in a specific way in DNA (and RNA).

      Complementary bases = bases that pair in a fixed, matching pattern

      They are called complementary because:

      • One base always matches with only one other base
      • The pairing is predictable and consistent

      2) The complementary base-pairing rules (must know)

      In DNA:

      • Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T)
      • Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G)

      In RNA:

      • Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (U)
      • Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G)

      📌 These rules never change.

      3) Why these bases pair together

      Complementary pairing happens because of:

      • Shape → bases fit together like puzzle pieces
      • Hydrogen bonding → specific bases can form hydrogen bonds with each other

      Details:

      • A–T form 2 hydrogen bonds
      • C–G form 3 hydrogen bonds (stronger)

      This keeps DNA:

      • Stable
      • Uniform in width

      4) Complementary bases in DNA structure

      DNA looks like a twisted ladder:

      • The sides → sugar–phosphate backbones
      • The rungs → complementary base pairs

      Each rung is:

      • One base from one strand
      • Its complementary base from the other strand

      5) Why complementary bases are essential (Science 10 focus)

      A) DNA replication

      • DNA strands separate
      • Each strand uses complementary bases to build a new strand
      • Result: two identical DNA molecules

      B) Transcription (DNA → RNA)

      • RNA is built using complementary base pairing
      • Ensures accurate genetic instructions

      C) Genetic accuracy

      • Complementary pairing prevents many errors
      • Maintains stable inheritance of traits

      6) Example (exam-style)

      If one DNA strand is:

      A T G C C A

      The complementary strand is:

      T A C G G T

      One-sentence exam summary

      Complementary bases are specific base pairs (A–T and C–G) that hold DNA strands together and allow accurate replication.

      中文 — complementary bases（互补碱基） 详细解释

      1) 什么是互补碱基（核心概念）

      互补碱基是指在 DNA（或 RNA）中，只能按照固定规则配对的碱基。

      互补碱基 = 能一一对应配对的碱基

      2) 互补配对规则（必背）

      DNA 中：

      • A（腺嘌呤） ↔ T（胸腺嘧啶）
      • C（胞嘧啶） ↔ G（鸟嘌呤）

      RNA 中：

      • A ↔ U（尿嘧啶）
      • C ↔ G

      3) 为什么叫“互补”

      互补的原因是：

      • 形状匹配
      • 氢键数量固定

      具体来说：

      • A–T：2 条氢键
      • C–G：3 条氢键（更牢固）

      这保证了 DNA 结构：

      • 稳定
      • 宽度一致

      4) 互补碱基在 DNA 中的位置

      DNA 像一把梯子：

      • 两侧：糖—磷酸骨架
      • 横档：互补碱基对

      每一个“横档”就是一对互补碱基。

      5) 互补碱基为什么重要（考试重点）

      ① DNA 复制

      • 旧链作模板
      • 通过互补配对生成新链
      • 遗传信息准确复制

      ② 转录（DNA → RNA）

      • RNA 按互补规则合成
      • 遗传信息得以表达

      ③ 遗传稳定性

      • 减少错误
      • 保证性状正确遗传

      6) 考试例题示范

      如果 DNA 一条链是：

      A T G C

      互补链是：

      T A C G

      一句话考试版总结

      互补碱基是 DNA 中按照 A–T、C–G 规则配对的碱基，保证遗传信息准确复制。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 complementary bases → DNA replication → transcription 做成 Science 10 中英对照流程图 / 互动闪卡，直接用于课堂或复习。

    2. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      rung

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — rung (thorough explanation)

      1) What “rung” means (core idea)

      A rung is a horizontal step or bar that connects the two sides of a ladder.

      Rung = one step of a ladder

      You climb a ladder by stepping on its rungs.

      2) “Rung” as a metaphor in biology (Science 10 focus)

      In biology, rung is often used as a comparison (metaphor) when explaining DNA structure.

      • DNA is often described as a twisted ladder
      • The sides of the ladder → sugar–phosphate backbones
      • The rungs of the ladder → paired nitrogenous bases

      📌 Each DNA rung is made of a base pair:

      • A–T (adenine–thymine)
      • C–G (cytosine–guanine)

      These base pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds.

      3) What makes up a DNA “rung”

      Each rung consists of:

      • Two nitrogenous bases
      • Joined by hydrogen bonds
      • One base from each DNA strand

      Example:

      One rung = A on one strand + T on the other strand

      4) Why the “rung” idea helps understanding

      The ladder model helps students visualize that:

      • DNA has two strands
      • The strands are connected at regular intervals
      • The order of rungs carries genetic information

      📌 The sequence of rungs = genetic code.

      5) Everyday uses of “rung”

      • Ladder rung
      • A rung on a career ladder (metaphor)
      • A rung in a rope ladder

      One-sentence exam summary

      A rung is a horizontal step of a ladder; in DNA, rungs represent paired nitrogenous bases connecting the two strands.

      中文 — rung（梯级 / 横档） 详细解释

      1) “rung”的基本含义

      Rung 指的是梯子上的横档或踏板，用来踩踏和攀爬。

      Rung = 梯子的一格横档

      2) 生物学中的 rung（DNA 比喻，重点）

      在生物学中，DNA 常被比作一把梯子：

      • 梯子的两侧 → 糖—磷酸骨架
      • 梯子的横档（rungs）→ 碱基对

      📌 每一个 DNA 的“rung”由一对碱基组成：

      • A–T
      • C–G

      3) DNA 横档的作用

      • 把两条 DNA 链连接在一起
      • 保持双螺旋结构稳定
      • 横档的排列顺序储存遗传信息

      一句话考试版总结

      Rung 指梯子的横档，在 DNA 中用来比喻连接两条链的碱基对。

      如果你需要，我可以把 ladder model → rung → base pair → hydrogen bond 做成 Science 10 中英对照图解或互动闪卡，非常适合课堂讲解与复习。

    3. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      strands

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — strands (thorough explanation)

      1) What “strands” means (core idea)

      Strands are long, thin lines or threads of material. In science, the word is often used to describe structures that are stretched out rather than clumped or round.

      Strand = a long, thin piece of something

      2) “Strands” in biology (Science 10 focus)

      A) DNA strands

      DNA is made of two strands that twist together to form a double helix.

      • Each strand is a long chain of nucleotides
      • The two strands are held together by base pairing
      • The strands run in opposite directions (antiparallel)

      📌 One strand is not enough for stable DNA → two strands are needed.

      B) RNA strand

      RNA usually has only one strand.

      • Single-stranded structure
      • Made of nucleotides like DNA
      • Used to carry and translate genetic information

      📌 This is why RNA is more flexible but less stable than DNA.

      C) Protein strands (fibers)

      Some proteins form strand-like fibers, such as:

      • Muscle proteins
      • Collagen fibers
      • Keratin in hair and nails

      3) “Strands” outside biology (quick examples)

      • Hair strands → individual hairs
      • Fiber strands → threads in fabric or rope
      • Data strands → sequences of information (metaphorical use)

      4) Strand vs chain vs helix (common confusion)

      | Term | Meaning | | ------------ | ---------------------------- | | Strand | One long, thin line | | Chain | Many units linked together | | Double helix | Two strands twisted together |

      📌 In DNA:

      • Each strand is a chain
      • Two strands form a double helix

      5) Why strands matter in genetics

      • The order of bases along a strand carries information
      • Complementary strands allow accurate copying
      • Strand separation is essential for replication and transcription

      One-sentence exam summary

      Strands are long, thin chains; DNA has two strands, while RNA usually has one.

      中文 — strands（链 / 丝状结构） 详细解释

      1) “strands”的基本含义

      Strands 指的是 细长、线状的结构。

      Strand = 一条细长的链或丝

      2) 生物学中的 strands（重点）

      A) DNA 链

      DNA 由 两条链（两条 strand）组成：

      • 每条链由核苷酸连接而成
      • 两条链通过碱基配对结合
      • 共同形成 双螺旋结构

      B) RNA 链

      RNA 通常是 单链结构：

      • 只有一条 strand
      • 用于传递和执行遗传信息

      C) 蛋白质纤维

      某些蛋白质呈丝状结构：

      • 肌肉纤维
      • 胶原蛋白
      • 角蛋白（头发）

      3) strand 与相关词的区别

      | 英文 | 中文 | 说明 | | ------------ | --- | ------- | | strand | 链 | 一条细长结构 | | chain | 链条 | 多个单位连接 | | double helix | 双螺旋 | 两条链扭在一起 |

      一句话考试版总结

      DNA 是双链结构，RNA 通常是单链结构。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 strand → nucleotide → base pairing → double helix 做成 Science 10 中英对照概念图或互动闪卡，直接用于复习或教学。

    4. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      ribonucleic

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — ribonucleic (thorough explanation)

      1) What ribonucleic means (core idea)

      Ribonucleic means related to RNA (ribonucleic acid). The word is most commonly seen in ribonucleic acid, abbreviated as RNA.

      Ribonucleic = having to do with RNA

      2) Why it’s called “ribonucleic”

      The name comes from its components:

      • Ribo- → ribose sugar
      • -nucleic → found in the nucleus (or related to genetic material)

      So:

      Ribonucleic acid = nucleic acid containing ribose sugar

      3) What ribonucleic acid (RNA) is

      RNA is a molecule that:

      • Carries genetic instructions
      • Helps make proteins
      • Works closely with DNA

      Unlike DNA, RNA is usually:

      • Single-stranded
      • Shorter
      • Less stable

      4) Structure of ribonucleic acid (exam focus)

      Each RNA nucleotide has:

      1. Phosphate group
      2. Ribose sugar
      3. Nitrogenous base

      RNA bases are:

      • Adenine (A)
      • Uracil (U) ← replaces thymine
      • Cytosine (C)
      • Guanine (G)

      📌 The presence of ribose sugar is what makes RNA “ribo”-nucleic.

      5) Main types of ribonucleic acid

      mRNA (messenger RNA)

      • Carries instructions from DNA to ribosomes

      tRNA (transfer RNA)

      • Brings amino acids to build proteins

      rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

      • Forms part of the ribosome

      All of these are ribonucleic acids.

      6) Ribonucleic vs deoxyribonucleic (RNA vs DNA)

      | Feature | Ribonucleic (RNA) | Deoxyribonucleic (DNA) | | --------- | ----------------- | ---------------------- | | Sugar | Ribose | Deoxyribose | | Strands | Single | Double | | Bases | A, U, C, G | A, T, C, G | | Function | Protein synthesis | Store genetic info | | Stability | Lower | Higher |

      7) Why ribonucleic acid is important

      Without ribonucleic acid:

      • Genetic information could not be used
      • Proteins could not be made
      • Cells could not function properly

      DNA stores information; ribonucleic acid uses it

      One-sentence exam summary

      Ribonucleic refers to RNA, a nucleic acid containing ribose sugar that helps convert genetic information into proteins.

      中文 — ribonucleic（核糖核酸的） 详细解释

      1) “ribonucleic”的基本含义

      Ribonucleic 指的是与 RNA（核糖核酸）有关的。

      Ribonucleic = 核糖核酸的

      2) 为什么叫“核糖核酸”

      • ribo-：核糖
      • nucleic：核酸 / 遗传物质

      RNA 是含有核糖的核酸。

      3) RNA 是什么

      RNA（核糖核酸）是：

      • 遗传信息的“执行者”
      • 参与蛋白质合成
      • 帮助细胞工作的重要分子

      4) RNA 的结构（考试重点）

      RNA 的每个核苷酸包括：

      1. 磷酸基团
      2. 核糖
      3. 含氮碱基

      RNA 的碱基是：

      • A、U、C、G

      5) RNA 的主要类型

      • 信使 RNA（mRNA）：传递指令
      • 转运 RNA（tRNA）：搬运氨基酸
      • 核糖体 RNA（rRNA）：构成核糖体

      6) RNA 与 DNA 的区别（常考）

      | 项目 | RNA | DNA | | -- | ----- | ------ | | 糖 | 核糖 | 脱氧核糖 | | 结构 | 单链 | 双链 | | 功能 | 蛋白质合成 | 储存遗传信息 |

      一句话考试版总结

      Ribonucleic 指的是核糖核酸（RNA），一种含核糖、参与蛋白质合成的核酸。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 ribonucleic / deoxyribonucleic / nucleotide / base 做成 Science 10 中英对照概念链或互动闪卡，方便你系统复习。

    5. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      Thymine

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — Thymine (T) (thorough explanation)

      1) What thymine is (core idea)

      Thymine is a nitrogenous base found only in DNA. It is one of the four bases that make up the DNA genetic code.

      Thymine = a DNA base that pairs with adenine

      2) Where thymine is found

      • DNA ✅
      • RNA ❌ (RNA uses uracil instead)

      Each thymine base is part of a nucleotide, attached to:

      • Deoxyribose sugar
      • Phosphate group

      3) Thymine’s base-pairing rule (exam essential)

      In DNA:

      • Thymine (T) pairs with Adenine (A)
      • Held together by 2 hydrogen bonds

      This specific pairing:

      • Keeps DNA strands aligned
      • Allows accurate DNA replication

      4) Chemical group of thymine

      Thymine belongs to the pyrimidines, which:

      • Have a single-ring structure
      • Are smaller than purines

      Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), Thymine (T), Uracil (U) Purines: Adenine (A), Guanine (G)

      Purine–pyrimidine pairing keeps the DNA double helix a constant width.

      5) Role of thymine in DNA

      • Thymine helps store genetic information
      • The order of T bases (with A, C, G) determines genes
      • Correct T–A pairing ensures genetic stability

      A mistake involving thymine (a mutation) can:

      • Change a gene
      • Alter protein structure
      • Affect traits

      6) Thymine vs uracil (common exam comparison)

      | Feature | Thymine (T) | Uracil (U) | | ---------- | ----------- | ----------- | | Found in | DNA | RNA | | Pairs with | Adenine | Adenine | | Stability | More stable | Less stable |

      📌 Thymine makes DNA more stable for long-term information storage.

      One-sentence exam summary

      Thymine is a pyrimidine nitrogenous base found only in DNA that pairs with adenine using two hydrogen bonds.

      中文 — Thymine（胸腺嘧啶，T） 详细解释

      1) 什么是胸腺嘧啶（核心概念）

      胸腺嘧啶（Thymine，T）是一种只存在于 DNA 中的含氮碱基，是 DNA 遗传信息的重要组成部分。

      胸腺嘧啶 = DNA 中与腺嘌呤配对的碱基

      2) 胸腺嘧啶出现在哪里

      • DNA 中有
      • RNA 中没有（RNA 用的是尿嘧啶 U）

      3) 胸腺嘧啶的配对规则（必考）

      DNA 中：

      • T ↔ A
      • 通过 2 条氢键连接

      这种精确配对保证 DNA 复制准确。

      4) 胸腺嘧啶的类别

      胸腺嘧啶属于 嘧啶（pyrimidine）：

      • 单环结构
      • 分子较小

      5) 胸腺嘧啶的作用

      • 参与遗传信息储存
      • 确保 DNA 双螺旋结构稳定
      • 维持遗传信息长期保存

      6) 胸腺嘧啶 vs 尿嘧啶（常考对比）

      | 项目 | 胸腺嘧啶 | 尿嘧啶 | | ---- | ---- | --- | | 所在分子 | DNA | RNA | | 配对对象 | 腺嘌呤 | 腺嘌呤 | | 稳定性 | 更高 | 较低 |

      一句话考试版总结

      胸腺嘧啶是 DNA 中与腺嘌呤配对、具有两条氢键的嘧啶碱基。

      如果你需要，我可以把 A–T vs C–G 的稳定性比较或把 四种 DNA 碱基整理成 Science 10 中英对照闪卡 / 互动图表，方便系统复习与教学。

    6. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      Guanine

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — Guanine (G) (thorough explanation)

      1) What guanine is (core idea)

      Guanine is a nitrogenous base found in DNA and RNA. It is one of the four bases that make up the genetic code.

      Guanine = a nitrogen-containing base that stores genetic information

      2) Where guanine is found

      Guanine appears in:

      • DNA
      • RNA

      It is always part of a nucleotide, attached to:

      • A sugar (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA)
      • A phosphate group

      3) Guanine’s base-pairing rule (exam essential)

      In DNA:

      • Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C)
      • They are held together by 3 hydrogen bonds

      In RNA:

      • Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C)

      📌 Because there are three hydrogen bonds, G–C pairs are stronger and more stable than A–T pairs.

      4) Guanine’s chemical group

      Guanine belongs to the purines, which:

      • Have a double-ring structure
      • Are larger than pyrimidines

      Purines: Adenine (A), Guanine (G) Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), Thymine (T), Uracil (U)

      This size matching (purine–pyrimidine) keeps the DNA double helix uniform in width.

      5) Role of guanine in DNA

      In DNA:

      • Guanine attaches to the sugar to form a nucleotide
      • The sequence of G (with A, T, C) determines genetic instructions
      • Accurate G–C pairing ensures correct DNA replication

      Changes involving guanine can cause mutations, potentially affecting proteins and traits.

      6) Guanine and DNA stability

      • Regions with many G–C pairs are more thermally stable
      • Such regions often occur in important regulatory areas of DNA

      One-sentence exam summary

      Guanine is a purine nitrogenous base that pairs with cytosine using three hydrogen bonds in DNA and RNA.

      中文 — Guanine（鸟嘌呤，G） 详细解释

      1) 什么是鸟嘌呤（核心概念）

      鸟嘌呤（Guanine，G）是一种存在于 DNA 和 RNA 中的含氮碱基，是遗传信息的重要组成部分。

      鸟嘌呤 = DNA / RNA 中的遗传“字母”之一

      2) 鸟嘌呤出现在哪里

      鸟嘌呤存在于：

      • DNA
      • RNA

      它与：

      • 糖
      • 磷酸基团 一起组成 核苷酸。

      3) 鸟嘌呤的配对规则（必考）

      DNA 中：

      • G ↔ C
      • 通过 3 条氢键连接

      RNA 中：

      • G ↔ C

      📌 三条氢键使 G–C 配对更加牢固。

      4) 鸟嘌呤的类别

      鸟嘌呤属于 嘌呤（purine）：

      • 双环结构
      • 分子较大

      对比：

      • 嘌呤：A、G
      • 嘧啶：C、T、U

      5) 鸟嘌呤在 DNA 中的作用

      • 与脱氧核糖结合形成核苷酸
      • 与胞嘧啶精确配对
      • 确保 DNA 复制的准确性

      碱基变化可能导致突变。

      一句话考试版总结

      鸟嘌呤是 DNA 和 RNA 中与胞嘧啶配对、具有三条氢键的嘌呤碱基。

      如果你需要，我可以把 A–T vs C–G 的稳定性对比、或把四种碱基做成 Science 10 中英对照闪卡 / 互动图解，直接用于复习或教学。

    7. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      Cytosine

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — Cytosine (C) (thorough explanation)

      1) What cytosine is (core idea)

      Cytosine is a nitrogenous base found in DNA and RNA. It is one of the four main bases that make up the genetic code.

      Cytosine = a nitrogen-containing base that helps store genetic information

      2) Where cytosine is found

      Cytosine occurs in:

      • DNA
      • RNA

      It is always part of a nucleotide, attached to:

      • A sugar (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA)
      • A phosphate group

      3) Cytosine’s base-pairing rule (exam essential)

      In DNA:

      • Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G)
      • They are held together by 3 hydrogen bonds

      In RNA:

      • Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G)

      📌 The three hydrogen bonds make the C–G pair stronger than the A–T pair.

      4) Cytosine’s chemical group

      Cytosine belongs to the pyrimidines, which:

      • Have a single-ring structure
      • Are smaller than purines

      Purines (double ring):

      • Adenine (A)
      • Guanine (G)

      Pyrimidines (single ring):

      • Cytosine (C)
      • Thymine (T)
      • Uracil (U)

      This size matching keeps the DNA double helix uniform in width.

      5) Role of cytosine in DNA

      In DNA:

      • Cytosine attaches to the sugar to form a nucleotide
      • The order of cytosine (with A, T, G) determines genetic instructions
      • Accurate C–G pairing ensures correct DNA replication

      A change in cytosine (mutation) can:

      • Alter genes
      • Affect proteins
      • Change traits

      6) Cytosine and genetic stability

      Because C–G pairs have three hydrogen bonds:

      • Regions rich in C and G are more stable
      • They often occur in important regulatory regions of DNA

      One-sentence exam summary

      Cytosine is a pyrimidine nitrogenous base that pairs with guanine using three hydrogen bonds in DNA and RNA.

      中文 — Cytosine（胞嘧啶，C） 详细解释

      1) 什么是胞嘧啶（核心概念）

      胞嘧啶（Cytosine，C）是一种存在于 DNA 和 RNA 中的含氮碱基，是遗传信息的基本组成单位之一。

      胞嘧啶 = DNA / RNA 中的重要碱基

      2) 胞嘧啶出现在哪里

      胞嘧啶存在于：

      • DNA
      • RNA

      它与：

      • 糖（DNA 中是脱氧核糖）
      • 磷酸基团 一起构成核苷酸。

      3) 胞嘧啶的配对规则（必考）

      DNA 中：

      • C ↔ G
      • 通过 3 条氢键连接

      RNA 中：

      • C ↔ G

      📌 三条氢键使 C–G 配对更牢固。

      4) 胞嘧啶的类别

      胞嘧啶属于 嘧啶（pyrimidine）：

      • 单环结构
      • 分子较小

      嘌呤（双环）：A、G 嘧啶（单环）：C、T、U

      5) 胞嘧啶在 DNA 中的作用

      • 与脱氧核糖结合形成核苷酸
      • 与鸟嘌呤精确配对
      • 保证 DNA 复制的准确性

      碱基变化可能导致突变。

      6) 一句话考试版总结

      胞嘧啶是 DNA 和 RNA 中与鸟嘌呤配对的嘧啶碱基，具有三条氢键。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 Adenine / Thymine / Cytosine / Guanine 做成 Science 10 中英对照碱基配对表或互动闪卡，非常适合系统复习与教学。

    8. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      Adenine

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — Adenine (A) (thorough explanation)

      1) What adenine is (core idea)

      Adenine is a nitrogenous base found in DNA and RNA. It is one of the letters of the genetic code.

      Adenine = a nitrogen-containing base that carries genetic information

      2) Where adenine is found

      Adenine appears in several key biological molecules:

      • DNA → pairs with thymine (T)
      • RNA → pairs with uracil (U)
      • ATP → part of the energy molecule used by cells

      3) Adenine’s base-pairing rules (exam essential)

      In DNA:

      • A pairs with T
      • Held together by 2 hydrogen bonds

      In RNA:

      • A pairs with U

      These pairing rules ensure accurate DNA replication and correct protein synthesis.

      4) Adenine’s chemical group

      Adenine belongs to the purines, which:

      • Have a double-ring structure
      • Are larger than pyrimidines

      Purines: Adenine (A), Guanine (G) Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), Thymine (T), Uracil (U)

      This size difference explains why:

      • Purine always pairs with pyrimidine
      • DNA maintains a uniform width

      5) Role of adenine in DNA

      In DNA:

      • Adenine attaches to deoxyribose sugar
      • Becomes part of a nucleotide
      • The sequence of adenine (with other bases) determines genetic instructions

      Changing adenine’s position can:

      • Alter genes
      • Cause mutations
      • Affect traits

      6) Adenine in energy (ATP connection)

      Adenine is part of ATP (adenosine triphosphate):

      • Adenine + ribose = adenosine
      • Adenosine + 3 phosphates = ATP

      ATP provides energy for:

      • Muscle contraction
      • Active transport
      • Chemical reactions

      One-sentence exam summary

      Adenine is a purine nitrogenous base that pairs with thymine in DNA and with uracil in RNA.

      中文 — Adenine（腺嘌呤，A） 详细解释

      1) 什么是腺嘌呤（核心概念）

      腺嘌呤（Adenine，A）是一种含氮碱基，存在于 DNA 和 RNA 中，是遗传信息的“字母”之一。

      腺嘌呤 = DNA / RNA 中的重要遗传碱基

      2) 腺嘌呤出现在哪里

      • DNA：与 胸腺嘧啶（T）配对
      • RNA：与 尿嘧啶（U）配对
      • ATP：能量分子的重要组成部分

      3) 腺嘌呤的配对规则（必考）

      DNA 中：

      • A ↔ T（2 条氢键）

      RNA 中：

      • A ↔ U

      这些规则保证了遗传信息的准确复制和表达。

      4) 腺嘌呤的类别

      腺嘌呤属于 嘌呤（purine）：

      • 结构为双环
      • 体积较大

      嘌呤：A、G 嘧啶：C、T、U

      5) 腺嘌呤在 DNA 中的作用

      • 与脱氧核糖结合
      • 构成核苷酸
      • 其排列顺序决定遗传信息

      碱基变化可能导致突变。

      6) 腺嘌呤与能量（ATP）

      腺嘌呤是 ATP（三磷酸腺苷）的一部分：

      • 为细胞活动提供能量

      一句话考试版总结

      腺嘌呤是 DNA 中与 T 配对、RNA 中与 U 配对的嘌呤碱基。

      如果你需要，我可以把 Adenine / Thymine / Cytosine / Guanine 做成 Science 10 中英对照碱基配对表或互动闪卡，方便系统复习。

    9. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      nitrogenousbase

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — nitrogenous base (thorough explanation)

      1) What a nitrogenous base is (core idea)

      A nitrogenous base is a nitrogen-containing molecule that is part of a nucleotide, the building block of DNA and RNA.

      Nitrogenous base = the “letter” of the genetic code

      Each nucleotide has:

      1. A phosphate group
      2. A sugar
      3. A nitrogenous base

      The sequence of bases stores genetic information.

      2) The five nitrogenous bases (must know)

      In DNA:

      • Adenine (A)
      • Thymine (T)
      • Cytosine (C)
      • Guanine (G)

      In RNA:

      • Adenine (A)
      • Uracil (U) (replaces thymine)
      • Cytosine (C)
      • Guanine (G)

      📌 Only the bases change; the sugar–phosphate backbone stays the same.

      3) Two base groups: purines vs pyrimidines

      Purines (two rings):

      • Adenine (A)
      • Guanine (G)

      Pyrimidines (one ring):

      • Cytosine (C)
      • Thymine (T)
      • Uracil (U)

      This size difference explains base pairing rules.

      4) Base pairing rules (DNA vs RNA)

      DNA base pairing:

      • A pairs with T (2 hydrogen bonds)
      • C pairs with G (3 hydrogen bonds)

      RNA base pairing:

      • A pairs with U
      • C pairs with G

      Hydrogen bonds hold paired bases together, forming the double helix in DNA.

      5) Why nitrogenous bases matter

      Nitrogenous bases:

      • Store genetic information
      • Determine proteins made by a cell
      • Allow DNA to replicate accurately
      • Enable RNA to carry instructions for protein synthesis

      Changing a base (a mutation) can change traits.

      6) Base vs nucleotide (common confusion)

      • Nitrogenous base → one component (A, T/U, C, G)
      • Nucleotide → base + sugar + phosphate

      Bases encode information; nucleotides build the molecule.

      One-sentence exam summary

      Nitrogenous bases are nitrogen-containing molecules in DNA and RNA whose sequence stores genetic information.

      中文 — nitrogenous base（含氮碱基） 详细解释

      1) 什么是含氮碱基（核心概念）

      含氮碱基是含有氮原子的分子，是 DNA 和 RNA 的核苷酸组成部分之一。

      含氮碱基 = 遗传信息的“字母”

      每个核苷酸由：

      1. 磷酸
      2. 糖
      3. 含氮碱基 组成。

      2) 五种含氮碱基（必背）

      DNA 中：

      • 腺嘌呤（A）
      • 胸腺嘧啶（T）
      • 胞嘧啶（C）
      • 鸟嘌呤（G）

      RNA 中：

      • 腺嘌呤（A）
      • 尿嘧啶（U）
      • 胞嘧啶（C）
      • 鸟嘌呤（G）

      3) 含氮碱基的两大类

      嘌呤（双环）：

      • A、G

      嘧啶（单环）：

      • C、T、U

      4) 碱基配对规则（考试重点）

      DNA：

      • A ↔ T
      • C ↔ G

      RNA：

      • A ↔ U
      • C ↔ G

      这些配对通过氢键连接，使 DNA 形成双螺旋结构。

      5) 含氮碱基的重要性

      • 决定遗传信息
      • 指导蛋白质合成
      • 保证 DNA 复制准确
      • 碱基改变会导致突变

      一句话考试版总结

      含氮碱基是 DNA 和 RNA 中储存遗传信息的关键成分。

      如果你需要，我可以把 nitrogenous base → nucleotide → DNA → gene 做成 Science 10 中英对照速记卡或互动图解，非常适合系统复习。

    10. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      sugar

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — Sugar in DNA (thorough explanation)

      1) What the sugar in DNA is

      The sugar found in DNA is called deoxyribose. It is a five-carbon sugar (a pentose) and is one of the three essential parts of a DNA nucleotide.

      DNA sugar = deoxyribose

      Each DNA nucleotide contains:

      1. A phosphate group
      2. Deoxyribose sugar
      3. A nitrogenous base (A, T, C, or G)

      2) Why it’s called deoxyribose

      • “Deoxy-” means missing an oxygen
      • Deoxyribose has one less oxygen atom than ribose (the sugar in RNA)

      📌 This small difference makes DNA:

      • More stable
      • Better for long-term information storage

      3) What the sugar does in DNA (key functions)

      A) Forms the backbone

      • Deoxyribose links to phosphate groups
      • Together they form the sugar–phosphate backbone
      • This backbone gives DNA its shape and strength

      B) Connects to bases

      • Each sugar attaches to one nitrogenous base
      • The sequence of bases carries genetic information
      • The sugar itself does not code information, but holds it in place

      4) How sugars link DNA together

      • The sugar of one nucleotide bonds to the phosphate of the next
      • This creates a long chain called a polynucleotide
      • The bonds are called phosphodiester bonds

      Two sugar–phosphate backbones twist together to form the double helix.

      5) DNA sugar vs RNA sugar (common exam comparison)

      | Feature | DNA | RNA | | ------------------- | ------------------ | ------------------ | | Sugar | Deoxyribose | Ribose | | Oxygen at 2′ carbon | ❌ Missing | ✅ Present | | Stability | More stable | Less stable | | Function | Store genetic info | Help make proteins |

      6) Why sugar matters (big picture)

      Without the sugar:

      • DNA nucleotides could not link
      • DNA would fall apart
      • Genetic information could not be stored or copied

      Sugar = the structural “frame” that holds DNA together

      One-sentence exam summary

      The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, which forms the sugar–phosphate backbone and supports the structure of the DNA molecule.

      中文 — DNA 中的糖（详细解释）

      1) DNA 中的糖是什么

      DNA 中的糖叫 脱氧核糖（deoxyribose），是一种五碳糖。

      DNA 的糖 = 脱氧核糖

      每个 DNA 核苷酸由三部分组成：

      1. 磷酸基团
      2. 脱氧核糖
      3. 含氮碱基（A、T、C、G）

      2) 为什么叫“脱氧”核糖

      • “脱氧”表示 少一个氧原子
      • 脱氧核糖比 RNA 中的核糖 少一个氧

      📌 这使 DNA：

      • 更稳定
      • 适合长期储存遗传信息

      3) 糖在 DNA 中的作用（重点）

      ① 构成骨架

      • 脱氧核糖与磷酸交替连接
      • 形成 糖—磷酸骨架
      • 为 DNA 提供支撑和形状

      ② 连接碱基

      • 每个糖连接一个碱基
      • 碱基顺序决定遗传信息
      • 糖本身不存信息，但固定信息

      4) DNA 是如何连成链的

      • 一个核苷酸的糖
      • 与下一个核苷酸的磷酸相连
      • 形成 磷酸二酯键

      两条这样的链相互缠绕，形成 DNA 双螺旋结构。

      5) DNA 糖 vs RNA 糖（常考对比）

      | 项目 | DNA | RNA | | --- | ------ | ----- | | 糖 | 脱氧核糖 | 核糖 | | 氧原子 | 少一个 | 多一个 | | 稳定性 | 高 | 低 | | 功能 | 储存遗传信息 | 蛋白质合成 |

      一句话考试版总结

      DNA 中的糖是脱氧核糖，它与磷酸一起形成 DNA 的骨架结构。

      如果你需要，我可以把 nucleotide → sugar → phosphate → DNA backbone 做成 中英对照闪卡或可交互 HTML 图解，直接用于 Science 10 复习或教学。

    11. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      phosphategroup

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — phosphate group (thorough explanation)

      1) What a phosphate group is (core idea)

      A phosphate group is a chemical group made of one phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms (PO₄³⁻).

      In biology, phosphate groups are extremely important because they:

      • Form part of DNA and RNA
      • Store and transfer energy
      • Help link molecules together

      Phosphate group = a key chemical unit for structure and energy

      2) Phosphate group in nucleotides (Science 10 focus)

      In DNA and RNA, every nucleotide contains:

      1. A phosphate group
      2. A sugar
      3. A nitrogenous base

      The phosphate group:

      • Connects to the sugar of one nucleotide
      • Links to the sugar of the next nucleotide

      This creates the sugar–phosphate backbone of DNA and RNA.

      📌 Without phosphate groups, nucleotides could not form long chains.

      3) Phosphodiester bonds (important term)

      Phosphate groups form phosphodiester bonds, which:

      • Join one sugar to the next sugar
      • Hold DNA and RNA strands together
      • Are very strong and stable

      This is why DNA can safely store genetic information.

      4) Phosphate groups and energy (ATP connection)

      Phosphate groups are also central to energy transfer.

      In ATP (adenosine triphosphate):

      • Energy is stored in the bonds between phosphate groups
      • When a phosphate group is removed, energy is released

      📌 This energy powers cell activities like:

      • Movement
      • Active transport
      • Protein synthesis

      5) Other roles of phosphate groups

      Phosphate groups also:

      • Help regulate enzymes (phosphorylation)
      • Are part of cell membranes (phospholipids)
      • Carry negative charge, helping DNA dissolve in water

      One-sentence exam summary

      A phosphate group links nucleotides together to form the sugar–phosphate backbone of DNA and stores energy in molecules like ATP.

      中文 — phosphate group（磷酸基团） 详细解释

      1) 什么是磷酸基团（核心概念）

      磷酸基团是一种由 1 个磷原子和 4 个氧原子组成的化学基团（PO₄³⁻）。

      在生物体内，磷酸基团非常重要，因为它：

      • 构成 DNA 和 RNA
      • 参与 能量储存和释放
      • 帮助分子彼此连接

      磷酸基团 = 结构与能量的关键单位

      2) 磷酸基团在核苷酸中的作用（必考）

      DNA 和 RNA 中的每个核苷酸都包含：

      1. 磷酸基团
      2. 糖
      3. 含氮碱基

      磷酸基团的作用：

      • 把一个核苷酸的糖
      • 与下一个核苷酸的糖连接起来

      从而形成 糖—磷酸骨架。

      3) 磷酸二酯键（重要名词）

      磷酸基团形成的磷酸二酯键：

      • 把相邻核苷酸连接起来
      • 使 DNA / RNA 链稳定
      • 是遗传信息的“支架”

      4) 磷酸基团与能量（ATP）

      在 ATP（三磷酸腺苷）中：

      • 能量储存在磷酸基团之间的键中
      • 当磷酸基团被移除时，释放能量

      这些能量用于：

      • 肌肉收缩
      • 主动运输
      • 生物合成

      5) 磷酸基团的其他作用

      • 调控蛋白质活性（磷酸化）
      • 构成细胞膜（磷脂）
      • 使 DNA 带负电、易溶于水

      一句话考试版总结

      磷酸基团把核苷酸连接成 DNA 的骨架，并在 ATP 中储存和释放能量。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 phosphate group → nucleotide → DNA backbone → ATP 做成 Science 10 中英对照概念图或互动闪卡，非常适合你现在的生物复习进度。

    12. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      blooms

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — algal blooms (thorough explanation)

      1) What algal blooms are (core idea)

      Algal blooms occur when algae grow very quickly and in large numbers in a body of water, often turning the water green, blue-green, or brown.

      Algal bloom = rapid overgrowth of algae in water

      Blooms commonly happen in ponds, lakes, rivers, and coastal waters.

      2) Why algal blooms happen

      Algal blooms are caused by a combination of favorable conditions:

      • Excess nutrients (especially nitrogen and phosphorus)

      • From fertilizers, sewage, farm runoff

      • Warm temperatures
      • Strong sunlight
      • Still or slow-moving water

      This nutrient enrichment is called eutrophication.

      3) Types of algal blooms

      A) Non-toxic blooms

      • Algae grow rapidly
      • Water looks green or cloudy
      • Still harmful if oxygen drops

      B) Harmful algal blooms (HABs)

      • Often caused by cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
      • Can release toxins
      • Dangerous to fish, pets, wildlife, and humans

      4) Why algal blooms are harmful (Science 10 focus)

      Even though algae are producers, blooms can damage ecosystems:

      • Block sunlight → underwater plants die
      • Reduce oxygen when algae die and decompose
      • Cause fish kills
      • Disrupt food webs
      • Some toxins cause illness if water is swallowed or touched

      📌 This oxygen loss is called hypoxia.

      5) Effects on humans

      Algal blooms can:

      • Contaminate drinking water
      • Close beaches and lakes
      • Kill fish and livestock
      • Cause skin irritation, stomach illness, or neurological symptoms

      6) Algal blooms in ponds (exam-friendly example)

      In a pond:

      1. Fertilizer runoff enters the water
      2. Algae multiply rapidly
      3. Oxygen levels drop
      4. Fish and insects may die
      5. Pond biodiversity decreases

      7) How algal blooms can be reduced

      • Reduce fertilizer use
      • Improve wastewater treatment
      • Protect shoreline vegetation
      • Control nutrient runoff

      One-sentence exam summary

      Algal blooms are rapid increases in algae caused by excess nutrients, often leading to low oxygen and ecosystem damage.

      中文 — algal blooms（藻华 / 藻类暴发） 详细解释

      1) 什么是藻华（核心概念）

      藻华（algal blooms）是指藻类在水体中迅速、大量繁殖的现象，常使水体呈现绿色、蓝绿色或褐色。

      藻华 = 藻类数量突然暴增

      2) 藻华产生的原因

      藻华通常由以下因素共同引起：

      • 养分过多（氮、磷）
      • 水温升高
      • 阳光充足
      • 水流缓慢或静止

      这种水体富营养化过程叫 水体富营养化。

      3) 藻华的类型

      ① 无毒藻华

      • 藻类大量繁殖
      • 会导致水体缺氧

      ② 有害藻华

      • 常由蓝藻（蓝绿藻）引起
      • 释放毒素
      • 对鱼类、人类和动物有危险

      4) 藻华为什么有害（考试重点）

      • 遮挡阳光，水草死亡
      • 藻类分解消耗氧气
      • 造成鱼类死亡
      • 破坏生态系统平衡

      5) 对人类的影响

      • 饮用水污染
      • 湖泊和海滩关闭
      • 人和动物中毒

      6) 池塘中的藻华示例（常考）

      1. 肥料进入池塘
      2. 藻类迅速繁殖
      3. 水中氧气下降
      4. 鱼类死亡
      5. 生物多样性下降

      一句话考试版总结

      藻华是由养分过多引起的藻类快速繁殖，会导致水体缺氧和生态破坏。

      如果你需要，我可以把 algae / algal / algal bloom / eutrophication 做成 Science 10 中英对照概念图或互动闪卡，直接用于考试复习。

    13. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      algal

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — algal (thorough explanation)

      1) What algal means (core idea)

      Algal is an adjective that means related to or caused by algae.

      Algal = having to do with algae

      It is used to describe things like algal cells, algal growth, or algal blooms.

      2) What algae are (quick reminder)

      Algae are mostly aquatic, photosynthetic organisms. They can be:

      • Microscopic (single-celled)
      • Macroscopic (large seaweeds)

      Algae are not true plants, but many behave like plants because they:

      • Contain chlorophyll
      • Perform photosynthesis

      3) Common uses of “algal” in science (Science 10 focus)

      Algal growth

      • Increase in algae due to sunlight and nutrients

      Algal bloom

      • A rapid increase in algae population
      • Often turns water green
      • Can reduce oxygen in water and harm animals

      Algal cells

      • Individual algae cells seen under a microscope

      Algal mats

      • Thick layers of algae covering water surfaces or rocks

      4) Algal blooms — important ecological example

      Algal blooms often occur when:

      • Nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus) are high
      • Water is warm
      • Sunlight is abundant

      Effects:

      • Block sunlight for other plants
      • Reduce dissolved oxygen
      • May produce toxins (in some species)

      📌 This process is linked to eutrophication.

      5) Why algal organisms are important

      Algal organisms:

      • Are primary producers
      • Form the base of many aquatic food chains
      • Produce a large amount of Earth’s oxygen
      • Support ecosystems like ponds, lakes, and oceans

      6) Grammar note

      • Algae → noun (plural)
      • Alga → noun (singular)
      • Algal → adjective

      📌 Example:

      Algal growth increases in warm, nutrient-rich water.

      中文 — algal（藻类的 / 与藻类有关的） 详细解释

      1) “algal”的基本含义

      Algal 是一个形容词，意思是 “与藻类有关的”。

      Algal = 藻类的

      2) 藻类是什么（简单回顾）

      藻类是大多生活在水中的能进行光合作用的生物，可以是：

      • 单细胞（显微藻类）
      • 多细胞（大型海藻）

      3) “algal”的常见科学用法（考试常见）

      • 藻类生长（algal growth）
      • 藻华 / 藻类暴发（algal bloom）
      • 藻类细胞（algal cells）
      • 藻毯（algal mats）

      4) 藻华（重点）

      藻华通常发生在：

      • 养分多
      • 温度高
      • 光照强

      影响：

      • 水体缺氧
      • 鱼类死亡
      • 水质恶化

      5) 藻类的重要性

      • 是水生生态系统的生产者
      • 是食物链的基础
      • 产生大量氧气

      6) 词性总结（考试加分点）

      • alga：单数，藻
      • algae：复数，藻类
      • algal：形容词，藻类的

      一句话考试版总结

      Algal means related to algae, especially in aquatic ecosystems. Algal 指与藻类有关的事物。

      如果你需要，我可以把 alga / algae / algal 做成 Science 10 中英对照速记卡或易错点练习题，非常适合考试复习。

    14. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      amoebas

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — amoebas (thorough explanation)

      1) What amoebas are (core idea)

      Amoebas are microscopic, single-celled protists that usually live in water or moist environments. They are famous for their constantly changing shape.

      Amoeba = one cell that changes shape to move and eat

      2) Where amoebas live

      Amoebas are commonly found in:

      • Ponds and lakes
      • Wet soil
      • Slow-moving freshwater
      • Inside other organisms (some species)

      Most amoebas are free-living and harmless, but a few can cause disease.

      3) How amoebas move — pseudopodia

      Amoebas move using pseudopodia (“false feet”).

      • The cell membrane pushes outward
      • Cytoplasm flows into the extension
      • The cell slowly pulls itself forward

      This movement is called amoeboid movement.

      4) How amoebas eat (ingestion by phagocytosis)

      Amoebas are heterotrophic (they must eat food).

      Steps:

      1. Amoeba surrounds food with pseudopodia
      2. Food is engulfed
      3. A food vacuole forms
      4. Enzymes digest the food
      5. Nutrients enter the cytoplasm
      6. Waste is released

      This feeding method is called phagocytosis.

      5) Important cell structures (Science 10 focus)

      | Structure | Function | | ------------------- | -------------------------- | | Pseudopodia | Movement and feeding | | Cell membrane | Controls entry and exit | | Cytoplasm | Site of chemical reactions | | Nucleus | Controls cell activities | | Food vacuole | Digestion | | Contractile vacuole | Pumps out excess water |

      6) Water balance (very important)

      Because amoebas live in freshwater:

      • Water constantly enters the cell by osmosis
      • The contractile vacuole removes extra water
      • This prevents the cell from bursting

      7) How amoebas reproduce

      • Reproduce by binary fission
      • One cell divides into two identical cells
      • This is asexual reproduction

      8) Why amoebas are important

      • Feed on bacteria → help control populations
      • Part of aquatic food webs
      • Used in biology to study cell movement and feeding
      • Show how one cell can perform all life functions

      One-sentence exam summary

      Amoebas are single-celled protists that move and eat using pseudopodia.

      中文 — amoebas（变形虫） 详细解释

      1) 变形虫是什么（核心概念）

      变形虫（amoebas）是生活在水或潮湿环境中的单细胞原生生物。 它们最显著的特点是形状不断变化。

      变形虫 = 靠改变形状来运动和进食的单细胞生物

      2) 变形虫的生活环境

      • 池塘
      • 湖泊
      • 潮湿土壤
      • 其他生物体内

      大多数变形虫对人类无害。

      3) 变形虫如何运动 —— 伪足

      变形虫通过伪足运动：

      • 细胞向前伸出伪足
      • 细胞质流入
      • 整个细胞向前移动

      这种方式叫 变形运动。

      4) 变形虫如何进食（吞噬作用）

      变形虫是异养生物，进食过程如下：

      1. 伪足包围食物
      2. 食物被吞入
      3. 形成食物泡
      4. 消化酶分解食物
      5. 营养进入细胞质
      6. 废物排出

      这种方式称为 吞噬作用（phagocytosis）。

      5) 重要结构（考试重点）

      | 结构 | 功能 | | --- | ------- | | 伪足 | 运动、捕食 | | 细胞膜 | 控制物质进出 | | 细胞质 | 生命活动场所 | | 细胞核 | 控制细胞 | | 食物泡 | 消化 | | 伸缩泡 | 排水、防止胀破 |

      6) 一句话考试版总结

      变形虫是通过伪足运动和进食的单细胞原生生物。

      如果你需要，我可以把 Amoeba / Paramecium / Euglena 做成 Science 10 中英对照比较表或互动闪卡，非常适合系统复习与课堂讲解。

    15. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      Euglena

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — Euglena (thorough explanation)

      1) What Euglena is (core idea)

      Euglena is a microscopic, single-celled protist that lives mainly in freshwater. It is special because it can act like both a plant and an animal.

      Euglena = a mix of plant-like and animal-like traits

      2) Why Euglena is unique (exam favorite)

      Euglena is often used to show that living things do not always fit neatly into one group.

      • Plant-like:

      • Has chloroplasts

      • Can do photosynthesis

      • Animal-like:

      • Can move

      • Can feed on organic matter when light is unavailable

      This flexible nutrition is called mixotrophic.

      3) How Euglena moves

      Euglena moves using a flagellum (a long, whip-like structure).

      • The flagellum spins or whips
      • Pulls the cell through water
      • Allows Euglena to move toward light

      4) How Euglena gets energy (two ways)

      A) Photosynthesis (like plants)

      • Uses chloroplasts
      • Needs light, carbon dioxide, and water
      • Produces glucose and oxygen

      B) Heterotrophic feeding (like animals)

      • When light is limited
      • Absorbs nutrients from the environment

      5) Important cell structures (Science 10 focus)

      | Structure | Function | | ------------------- | -------------------------------------- | | Flagellum | Movement | | Eyespot (stigma) | Detects light | | Chloroplasts | Photosynthesis | | Nucleus | Controls cell activities | | Pellicle | Flexible outer layer (not a cell wall) | | Contractile vacuole | Removes excess water |

      6) Eyespot and light detection (very important)

      Euglena has a red eyespot that:

      • Detects the direction of light
      • Helps Euglena swim toward light
      • Increases photosynthesis efficiency

      This behavior is called phototaxis.

      7) Where Euglena lives

      • Ponds
      • Lakes
      • Slow-moving freshwater
      • Nutrient-rich water

      Euglena often thrives in water with plenty of light.

      8) How Euglena reproduces

      • Reproduces by binary fission
      • One cell divides into two identical cells

      One-sentence exam summary

      Euglena is a single-celled protist that can photosynthesize like a plant and move like an animal using a flagellum.

      中文 — Euglena（眼虫） 详细解释

      1) 眼虫是什么（核心概念）

      眼虫（Euglena）是一种生活在淡水中的单细胞原生生物。 它的最大特点是：既像植物，又像动物。

      眼虫 = 兼具植物和动物特征的原生生物

      2) 眼虫为什么特殊（考试重点）

      • 像植物：

      • 有叶绿体

      • 能进行光合作用

      • 像动物：

      • 能主动运动

      • 缺光时可吸收有机物获取能量

      这种双重营养方式称为 混合营养（mixotrophic）。

      3) 眼虫如何运动

      • 通过一根鞭毛运动
      • 鞭毛摆动，推动细胞前进

      4) 眼虫如何获取能量

      ① 光合作用（有光时）

      • 利用叶绿体
      • 制造葡萄糖

      ② 异养方式（无光时）

      • 从环境中吸收营养

      5) 重要结构（必考）

      | 结构 | 功能 | | --- | ------- | | 鞭毛 | 运动 | | 眼点 | 感光 | | 叶绿体 | 光合作用 | | 细胞核 | 控制生命活动 | | 表膜 | 保护并保持形状 | | 伸缩泡 | 排出多余水分 |

      6) 眼点的作用（高频考点）

      • 感知光线方向
      • 帮助眼虫向光移动
      • 提高光合作用效率

      这种向光移动的行为叫 趋光性。

      一句话考试版总结

      眼虫是一种能进行光合作用、又能主动运动的单细胞原生生物。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 Euglena / Paramecium / Amoeba 做成 Science 10 中英对照对比表或互动闪卡，非常适合系统复习。

    16. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      Paramecium

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — Paramecium (thorough explanation)

      1) What Paramecium is (core idea)

      Paramecium is a microscopic, single-celled protist that lives mainly in freshwater, such as ponds.

      Even though it is only one cell, it can:

      • Move
      • Eat
      • Digest food
      • Remove waste
      • Respond to its environment

      Paramecium = a single cell that does everything a living organism needs to do

      2) Where Paramecium lives

      Paramecium is commonly found in:

      • Ponds
      • Lakes
      • Slow-moving freshwater
      • Water with decaying organic matter

      These environments contain many bacteria, which Paramecium feeds on.

      3) How Paramecium moves — cilia

      Paramecium is covered with tiny hair-like structures called cilia.

      Cilia:

      • Beat in coordinated waves
      • Pull Paramecium through water
      • Help sweep food into the cell mouth

      📌 This makes Paramecium very active compared to many other protists.

      4) How Paramecium eats (ingestion & digestion)

      Paramecium is heterotrophic (cannot make its own food).

      Steps:

      1. Cilia sweep food (bacteria, algae) into the oral groove
      2. Food enters the cell mouth
      3. A food vacuole forms
      4. Enzymes digest the food
      5. Nutrients move into the cytoplasm
      6. Waste exits the cell

      5) Important cell structures (exam focus)

      | Structure | Function | | ----------------------- | -------------------------------------- | | Cilia | Movement and feeding | | Oral groove | Directs food inward | | Food vacuole | Digests food | | Contractile vacuole | Pumps out excess water | | Nucleus (macro & micro) | Controls cell functions & reproduction | | Cell membrane | Protects cell and controls entry/exit |

      6) How Paramecium controls water (very important)

      Because it lives in freshwater:

      • Water constantly enters the cell by osmosis
      • The contractile vacuole collects excess water
      • It periodically squeezes the water out

      👉 This prevents the cell from bursting.

      7) How Paramecium reproduces

      Paramecium reproduces mainly by binary fission:

      • One cell divides into two identical cells

      Sometimes, Paramecium can exchange genetic material through conjugation, which increases genetic diversity.

      8) Why Paramecium is important

      • Eats bacteria → helps control bacterial populations
      • Is food for larger microscopic organisms
      • A classic model organism in biology classes
      • Helps scientists study cell functions

      One-sentence exam summary

      Paramecium is a microscopic, single-celled protist that moves using cilia and feeds on bacteria in freshwater environments.

      中文 — Paramecium（草履虫） 详细解释

      1) 草履虫是什么（核心概念）

      草履虫（Paramecium）是一种生活在淡水中的单细胞原生生物。

      虽然只有一个细胞，但它可以：

      • 运动
      • 进食
      • 消化
      • 排出废物
      • 对环境作出反应

      2) 草履虫的生活环境

      • 池塘
      • 湖泊
      • 缓慢流动的淡水
      • 含有腐烂有机物的水体

      3) 草履虫如何运动 —— 纤毛

      草履虫表面布满纤毛：

      • 纤毛协调摆动
      • 推动草履虫前进
      • 同时把食物扫入口沟

      4) 草履虫如何进食

      草履虫是异养生物，进食过程如下：

      1. 纤毛将细菌扫入口沟
      2. 食物进入细胞口
      3. 形成食物泡
      4. 消化酶分解食物
      5. 营养被吸收
      6. 废物排出体外

      5) 重要结构（考试重点）

      | 结构 | 功能 | | --- | ------ | | 纤毛 | 运动和进食 | | 口沟 | 引导食物 | | 食物泡 | 消化 | | 伸缩泡 | 排出多余水分 | | 细胞核 | 控制生命活动 | | 细胞膜 | 保护细胞 |

      6) 伸缩泡的作用（必考）

      由于生活在淡水中：

      • 水不断进入细胞
      • 伸缩泡负责把多余的水排出
      • 防止细胞涨破

      7) 繁殖方式

      • 二分裂：一个变成两个
      • 接合生殖：交换遗传物质（不增加数量，但增加多样性）

      一句话考试版总结

      草履虫是利用纤毛运动、以细菌为食的单细胞原生生物。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 Paramecium / Amoeba / Euglena 做成 Science 10 中英对照比较表或互动闪卡，非常适合你现在的生物复习节奏。

    17. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      Protists

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — Protists (thorough explanation)

      1) What protists are (core idea)

      Protists are a diverse group of mostly microscopic, eukaryotic organisms that do not fit into the plant, animal, or fungi kingdoms.

      Protists = mostly single-celled eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi

      Key point for Science 10:

      • They have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
      • Most live in water or moist environments

      2) Why protists are grouped together

      Protists are grouped not because they are similar, but because they are eukaryotes that don’t belong elsewhere.

      They are extremely diverse in:

      • Shape
      • Size
      • Movement
      • Nutrition

      3) Main types of protists (exam-friendly categories)

      A) Animal-like protists (Protozoa)

      • Heterotrophic (must ingest food)
      • Often move to find food

      Examples:

      • Amoeba → moves using pseudopods (“false feet”)
      • Paramecium → moves using cilia

      📌 These protists ingest other organisms.

      B) Plant-like protists (Algae)

      • Autotrophic (do photosynthesis)
      • Contain chlorophyll
      • Important producers in aquatic ecosystems

      Examples:

      • Green algae
      • Diatoms
      • Kelp (large multicellular algae)

      📌 Algae produce oxygen and form the base of many food chains.

      C) Fungus-like protists

      • Heterotrophic
      • Often decomposers
      • Absorb nutrients from dead or decaying matter

      Examples:

      • Slime molds
      • Water molds

      4) Where protists are found

      Protists usually live in:

      • Ponds and lakes
      • Oceans
      • Wet soil
      • Inside other organisms

      Anywhere there is water, protists can usually thrive.

      5) Why protists are important

      Protists play major roles in ecosystems:

      • Producers (algae) → photosynthesis
      • Consumers → feed on bacteria and other protists
      • Decomposers → recycle nutrients
      • Part of aquatic food webs
      • Some cause diseases (e.g., malaria)

      Even though they are microscopic, they have huge ecological impact.

      6) Protists vs bacteria (common confusion)

      | Feature | Protists | Bacteria | | ---------- | ---------- | ----------- | | Cell type | Eukaryotic | Prokaryotic | | Nucleus | ✅ Yes | ❌ No | | Size | Larger | Smaller | | Organelles | Present | Absent |

      One-sentence exam summary

      Protists are mostly microscopic eukaryotic organisms that live in water and do not belong to the plant, animal, or fungi kingdoms.

      中文 — Protists（原生生物） 详细解释

      1) 什么是原生生物（核心概念）

      原生生物（Protists）是一类大多为单细胞的真核生物，它们既不是植物、也不是动物或真菌。

      原生生物 = 不属于植物、动物、真菌的真核生物

      关键点：

      • 有细胞核
      • 多生活在水或潮湿环境

      2) 为什么要把它们归为一类

      原生生物被归在一起，并不是因为它们相似，而是因为：

      • 它们是真核生物
      • 又不适合归入其他界

      3) 原生生物的三大类型（考试常考）

      A) 类动物原生生物（原生动物）

      • 异养（需要摄食）
      • 通常可以运动

      例子：

      • 变形虫：用伪足移动和捕食
      • 草履虫：用纤毛运动

      B) 类植物原生生物（藻类）

      • 自养
      • 进行光合作用
      • 是水生生态系统的重要生产者

      C) 类真菌原生生物

      • 异养
      • 多为分解者
      • 从腐烂有机物中吸收养分

      4) 原生生物生活在哪里

      • 池塘
      • 湖泊
      • 海洋
      • 潮湿土壤
      • 其他生物体内

      只要有水，就可能发现原生生物。

      5) 原生生物的重要性

      • 藻类提供氧气
      • 是食物链的基础
      • 帮助分解和循环养分
      • 有些会引起疾病

      一句话考试版总结

      原生生物是主要生活在水中的单细胞真核生物。

      如果你需要，我可以把 Protists / Bacteria / Fungi 做成 Science 10 中英对照对比表或互动闪卡，直接用于考试复习或课堂教学。

    18. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      multitude

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — multitude (thorough explanation)

      1) What “multitude” means (core idea)

      Multitude means a very large number of people or things—many more than just “several” or “some.”

      Multitude = a great many / a large quantity

      It emphasizes quantity and abundance.

      2) How “multitude” is used

      • It is often used with “of”

      • a multitude of stars

      • a multitude of species
      • It can describe people, objects, or living organisms.

      3) “Multitude” in science (Science 10 context)

      In biology and ecology, multitude is commonly used to describe:

      • A multitude of species in a biodiverse ecosystem
      • A multitude of organisms in a pond or soil
      • A multitude of cells in living tissue

      📌 Example:

      A healthy pond contains a multitude of microscopic organisms.

      4) Multitude vs similar words

      | Word | Meaning | Strength | | ------------- | ----------------- | ---------- | | few | very small number | low | | several | more than a few | low–medium | | many | large number | medium | | multitude | very large number | high | | countless | too many to count | very high |

      5) Grammar note

      • Multitude is a noun

      • It can be treated as singular or plural, depending on meaning:

      • A multitude of species is found here. (focus on the group)

      • A multitude of people were waiting. (focus on individuals)

      中文 — multitude（大量；众多） 详细解释

      1) “multitude”的基本含义

      Multitude 表示 数量非常多的事物或人，强调“多”和“丰富”。

      Multitude = 大量的 / 众多的

      2) 常见用法

      • 常与 of 连用：

      • a multitude of 动植物

      • a multitude of 问题

      3) 科学语境中的用法（考试常见）

      在生物和生态学中，multitude常用来描述：

      • 一个生态系统中众多的物种
      • 池塘中大量的微生物
      • 生物体内数量巨大的细胞

      📌 例句：

      一个健康的生态系统中存在着众多不同的物种。

      4) 近义词对比

      | 英文 | 中文 | 数量感觉 | | ------------- | -- | ------- | | few | 很少 | 少 | | several | 几个 | 较少 | | many | 许多 | 多 | | multitude | 众多 | 非常多 |

      一句话考试版总结

      Multitude means a very large number of people or things. Multitude 表示数量极多的事物或人。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 multitude / many / several / few 做成 Science 10 中英对照速记卡或练习题，帮助学生准确选词。

    19. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      thrive

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — thrive (thorough explanation)

      1) What “thrive” means (core idea)

      Thrive means to grow well, stay healthy, and do better than just surviving. When something thrives, it is strong, active, and successful in its environment.

      Thrive = grow and do very well

      2) Thrive vs survive (important contrast)

      These two words are often compared:

      • Survive → stay alive, but possibly weak or stressed
      • Thrive → grow, reproduce, and function at a high level

      📌 Example:

      • A plant that barely stays alive in poor soil survives
      • A plant that grows tall, produces flowers, and spreads thrives

      3) How “thrive” is used in biology (Science 10 focus)

      In biology and ecology, thrive means an organism has:

      • Enough food
      • Suitable temperature
      • Enough water
      • Proper space
      • Few limiting factors

      📌 Example sentence:

      Fish thrive in clean, oxygen-rich water.

      4) Thrive in ecosystems

      An organism thrives when:

      • It is well adapted to its habitat
      • Abiotic factors (light, water, temperature) are ideal
      • Biotic factors (food availability, low competition) are favorable

      When many organisms thrive, the ecosystem is healthy.

      5) Everyday uses of “thrive”

      “Thrive” is not only for biology:

      • People can thrive in supportive environments
      • Businesses can thrive when conditions are good
      • Ideas can thrive with encouragement

      中文 — thrive（茁壮成长 / 蓬勃发展） 详细解释

      1) “thrive”的基本含义

      Thrive 指的是 生长良好、状态健康、不只是勉强活着。

      Thrive = 茁壮成长、发展得很好

      2) thrive 与 survive 的区别（重点）

      • Survive（生存）：只是活着，可能状态不好
      • Thrive（茁壮成长）：生长旺盛、繁殖良好、状态优秀

      📌 例子：

      • 条件差的植物只是“活着” → survive
      • 条件好的植物长得高、开花结果 → thrive

      3) 生物学中的 thrive（考试常见）

      在生态学中，生物要“茁壮成长”，需要：

      • 足够的食物
      • 合适的温度
      • 充足的水分
      • 合适的空间
      • 较少限制因素

      📌 例句：

      青蛙在湿润的池塘环境中茁壮成长。

      4) 生态系统中的 thrive

      当生物适应环境、资源充足时：

      • 个体会茁壮成长
      • 种群数量稳定或增加
      • 生态系统保持健康和平衡

      一句话考试版总结

      To thrive means to grow well and be healthy, not just survive. Thrive 指的是在良好条件下茁壮成长，而不仅仅是生存。

      如果你需要，我可以把 thrive / survive / adapt 做成 Science 10 中英对照速记卡或互动闪卡，非常适合考试复习。

    20. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      microscopic

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — microscopic (thorough explanation)

      1) What “microscopic” means (core idea)

      Microscopic describes something that is so small it cannot be seen with the naked eye and must be viewed using a microscope.

      Microscopic = too small to see without a microscope

      2) Microscopic vs macroscopic (important contrast)

      • Microscopic → visible only with a microscope
      • Macroscopic → visible with the naked eye

      📌 Examples:

      • A cell → microscopic
      • A leaf → macroscopic
      • Bacteria → microscopic
      • Ant → macroscopic

      3) Common microscopic things (Science 10 focus)

      Many important living things are microscopic:

      Living microscopic organisms

      • Bacteria
      • Protozoa (e.g., amoeba, paramecium)
      • Some algae
      • Yeast

      Microscopic structures

      • Cells
      • Nuclei
      • Chloroplasts
      • Red blood cells

      4) Why microscopic life is important

      Even though microscopic organisms are tiny, they are extremely important:

      • Help decompose dead material
      • Recycle nutrients in ecosystems
      • Some cause disease
      • Some are useful (e.g., gut bacteria, yeast in bread)
      • Form the base of some food chains (e.g., plankton)

      5) Microscopic life in ecosystems (example: ponds)

      In pond ecosystems:

      • Microscopic algae are producers
      • Microscopic animals are primary consumers
      • They support larger organisms like insects and fish

      Without microscopic life, ecosystems would collapse.

      6) How we study microscopic things

      Scientists use:

      • Light microscopes (for cells and small organisms)
      • Electron microscopes (for viruses and cell details)

      Microscopes magnify objects many times to make them visible.

      中文 — microscopic（微观的 / 显微的） 详细解释

      1) “microscopic”的基本含义

      Microscopic（微观的、显微的）指的是小到肉眼无法看见，必须借助显微镜才能观察的事物。

      Microscopic = 需要显微镜才能看到的

      2) microscopic 与 macroscopic 的区别（重点）

      • Microscopic：只能用显微镜看到
      • Macroscopic：用肉眼就能看到

      📌 例子：

      • 细胞 → 微观
      • 树叶 → 宏观
      • 细菌 → 微观
      • 昆虫 → 宏观

      3) 常见的微观事物

      微生物

      • 细菌
      • 原生动物（如变形虫）
      • 一些藻类
      • 酵母

      微观结构

      • 细胞
      • 细胞核
      • 叶绿体
      • 红细胞

      4) 微观生物的重要性

      虽然它们很小，但作用巨大：

      • 分解死亡生物
      • 循环养分
      • 有些会引起疾病
      • 有些对人类有益
      • 支撑生态系统的食物链

      5) 生态系统中的微观世界（池塘例子）

      • 微观藻类是生产者
      • 微观动物是初级消费者
      • 为更大的生物提供能量来源

      一句话考试版总结

      Microscopic objects are too small to be seen without a microscope. 微观事物需要借助显微镜才能观察。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 microscopic / macroscopic / microscope 做成 Science 10 中英对照速记卡或互动闪卡，方便你系统复习。

    21. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      coniferous

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — coniferous (thorough explanation)

      1) What “coniferous” means (core idea)

      Coniferous describes trees and plants that produce cones and usually have needle-like or scale-like leaves. Most coniferous trees are evergreen, meaning they stay green all year.

      Coniferous = cone-bearing, usually evergreen trees

      2) Key characteristics of coniferous trees

      • Leaves: narrow needles or scales
      • Seeds: produced in cones (not flowers)
      • Color: usually green year-round
      • Shape: often tall with a cone-like shape (helps shed snow)

      3) Why needle leaves are an advantage

      Needle-shaped leaves help coniferous trees survive harsh environments:

      • Less surface area → reduces water loss
      • Waxy coating → protects from cold and drying winds
      • Flexible needles → snow slides off easily

      These features make coniferous trees well adapted to cold or dry climates.

      4) Where coniferous forests are found

      • Cold and cool regions
      • Mountainous areas
      • Northern regions (taiga / boreal forest)

      Large coniferous forests exist in Canada, Alaska, Scandinavia, and Russia.

      5) Examples of coniferous trees

      • Pine
      • Spruce
      • Fir
      • Cedar
      • Hemlock

      6) Coniferous vs deciduous (quick comparison)

      | Feature | Coniferous | Deciduous | | --------- | ------------------- | ------------------ | | Leaves | Needles or scales | Broad, flat | | Leaf loss | Usually keep leaves | Lose leaves yearly | | Seeds | Cones | Flowers / fruits | | Climate | Cold / dry | Temperate |

      7) Importance of coniferous forests

      Coniferous forests:

      • Provide habitat for wildlife
      • Store carbon and help regulate climate
      • Supply wood, paper, and lumber
      • Protect soil from erosion

      中文 — coniferous（针叶林的 / 针叶植物） 详细解释

      1) “coniferous”的基本含义

      Coniferous（针叶植物的）指的是结球果的植物，通常具有针状或鳞片状叶子，而且大多是常绿植物。

      Coniferous = 结松果的常绿植物

      2) 针叶树的主要特征

      • 叶子：针状或鳞片状
      • 种子：生长在球果中
      • 颜色：全年保持绿色
      • 树形：常呈锥形，利于积雪滑落

      3) 针状叶子的生存优势

      针叶结构有助于在恶劣环境中生存：

      • 表面积小，减少水分流失
      • 表面有蜡质层，防寒防风
      • 针叶柔韧，不易压断积雪

      4) 针叶林分布地区

      • 寒冷或凉爽地区
      • 高山地区
      • 北方地区（泰加林 / 北方针叶林）

      加拿大大部分森林都是针叶林。

      5) 常见针叶树

      • 松树
      • 云杉
      • 冷杉
      • 雪松
      • 铁杉

      6) 针叶林 vs 落叶林（对比）

      | 特点 | 针叶林 | 落叶林 | | ---- | ------- | ---- | | 叶子 | 针状 | 宽叶 | | 是否落叶 | 常绿 | 每年落叶 | | 繁殖 | 球果 | 花和果实 | | 气候 | 寒冷 / 干燥 | 温带 |

      一句话考试版总结

      Coniferous plants produce cones and usually keep their needle-like leaves year-round. 针叶植物通过结球果并保持针状叶来适应寒冷环境。

      如果你需要，我可以把 coniferous vs deciduous 做成 Science 10 中英对照速记卡 / 对比图表 / HTML 互动闪卡，非常适合考试复习。

    22. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      ponds

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — ponds (thorough explanation)

      1) What “ponds” are (core idea)

      Ponds are small, shallow bodies of freshwater. They are usually shallower than lakes, so sunlight can reach the bottom, allowing plants to grow throughout much of the pond.

      Pond = small, shallow freshwater ecosystem

      2) Key characteristics of ponds

      • Freshwater (not salty)
      • Shallow depth → light reaches the bottom
      • Often warmer than lakes
      • Can be natural or human-made
      • Support rich biodiversity

      Because light reaches the bottom, ponds often have many plants.

      3) Living things found in ponds

      Ponds support many forms of life:

      Plants

      • Algae
      • Duckweed
      • Water lilies
      • Reeds and cattails

      Animals

      • Frogs and tadpoles
      • Fish (small species)
      • Insects (dragonflies, water beetles)
      • Snails
      • Birds (ducks, herons)

      4) Pond food chain (Science 10 focus)

      A simple pond food chain:

      • Producers → algae, aquatic plants
      • Primary consumers → insects, snails, tadpoles
      • Secondary consumers → small fish, frogs
      • Top predators → larger fish, birds

      Energy flows from the Sun → plants → animals.

      5) Abiotic (non-living) factors in ponds

      Important non-living factors include:

      • Sunlight
      • Water temperature
      • Dissolved oxygen
      • Nutrients
      • Mud or sediment at the bottom

      Changes in these factors affect pond life.

      6) Seasonal changes in ponds

      Ponds change with the seasons:

      • Spring: increased plant growth, breeding season
      • Summer: warm water, high biological activity
      • Autumn: dying plants add nutrients to the bottom
      • Winter: surface may freeze, but life continues below

      Shallow ponds may freeze more easily than lakes.

      7) Why ponds are important

      Ponds:

      • Provide habitat for many species
      • Support breeding of amphibians
      • Help filter water naturally
      • Increase local biodiversity

      Even small ponds play a big role in ecosystems.

      中文 — ponds（池塘） 详细解释

      1) “ponds”的基本含义

      池塘（ponds）是较小、较浅的淡水水体。 由于水浅，阳光可以照到水底，因此植物可以在池塘各处生长。

      池塘 = 小型、浅水的淡水生态系统

      2) 池塘的主要特征

      • 淡水
      • 水浅
      • 水温通常比湖泊高
      • 可以是天然或人工
      • 生物种类丰富

      3) 池塘中的生物

      植物

      • 藻类
      • 浮萍
      • 睡莲
      • 芦苇

      动物

      • 青蛙和蝌蚪
      • 小型鱼类
      • 昆虫（蜻蜓幼虫）
      • 蜗牛
      • 鸟类（鸭子、苍鹭）

      4) 池塘中的食物链（考试重点）

      简单的池塘食物链：

      • 生产者：藻类、水生植物
      • 初级消费者：昆虫、蜗牛、蝌蚪
      • 次级消费者：小鱼、青蛙
      • 顶级捕食者：大鱼、鸟类

      能量来源于太阳。

      5) 池塘中的非生物因素

      • 阳光
      • 水温
      • 水中溶氧
      • 养分
      • 底部泥沙

      这些因素会影响池塘生态平衡。

      6) 池塘的季节变化

      • 春季：生物繁殖，植物生长旺盛
      • 夏季：水温高，生命活动活跃
      • 秋季：植物死亡，营养回到水中
      • 冬季：表面结冰，水下生物仍可存活

      一句话考试版总结

      Ponds are small, shallow freshwater ecosystems that support a wide variety of plants and animals. 池塘是浅水淡水生态系统，支持多样的动植物生存。

      如果你需要，我可以把 ponds / lakes / wetlands 做成 Science 10 对比表或互动闪卡，方便系统复习。

    23. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      deciduous

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — deciduous (thorough explanation)

      1) What “deciduous” means (core idea)

      Deciduous describes plants (especially trees) that lose their leaves once every year, usually in autumn (fall).

      Deciduous = sheds leaves seasonally

      After losing their leaves, deciduous plants:

      • Remain bare during winter
      • Grow new leaves in spring

      2) Why deciduous trees lose their leaves

      Leaf loss is a survival strategy, not a weakness.

      Main reasons:

      • Cold protection: leaves are easily damaged by freezing
      • Water conservation: frozen ground makes water hard to absorb
      • Energy saving: maintaining leaves in winter costs energy

      By dropping leaves, the tree reduces water loss and damage.

      3) What happens to the leaves (color change)

      Before leaves fall:

      • Chlorophyll (green pigment) breaks down

      • Other pigments become visible:

      • Yellow / orange (carotenoids)

      • Red / purple (anthocyanins)

      This causes the autumn colors seen in deciduous forests.

      4) Examples of deciduous trees

      Common deciduous trees include:

      • Maple
      • Oak
      • Birch
      • Elm
      • Beech

      Many trees in temperate climates are deciduous.

      5) Deciduous vs evergreen (key comparison)

      | Feature | Deciduous | Evergreen | | ----------------- | ------------- | ------------------------- | | Leaves | Broad, thin | Needle-like or thick | | Leaf loss | Once a year | Gradual / not all at once | | Winter appearance | Bare branches | Green year-round | | Climate | Temperate | Cold or dry regions |

      6) Where deciduous plants are commonly found

      • Temperate regions with four seasons
      • Areas with cold winters and warm summers
      • Common in eastern North America, Europe, East Asia

      7) “Deciduous” is also used beyond trees

      The word deciduous means “falling off” in biology:

      • Deciduous teeth = baby teeth that fall out
      • Deciduous antlers = antlers shed yearly (e.g., deer)

      中文 — deciduous（落叶的 / 落叶性） 详细解释

      1) “deciduous”的基本含义

      Deciduous（落叶性的）指的是每年在特定季节（通常是秋天）会落叶的植物，尤其是树木。

      Deciduous = 每年定期落叶

      冬天：

      • 树枝光秃 春天：
      • 重新长出新叶

      2) 为什么落叶树要落叶

      落叶是一种适应环境的生存策略。

      主要原因包括：

      • 防寒：叶子容易被霜冻破坏
      • 节水：冬季土壤结冰，难以吸水
      • 节省能量：维持叶片需要消耗能量

      3) 秋天树叶为什么会变色

      在秋天：

      • 叶绿素分解

      • 其他色素显现：

      • 黄色、橙色（类胡萝卜素）

      • 红色、紫色（花青素）

      这就形成了秋季彩叶景观。

      4) 常见的落叶树

      • 枫树
      • 橡树
      • 桦树
      • 榆树
      • 山毛榉

      这些树在温带地区非常常见。

      5) 落叶树 vs 常绿树（重点对比）

      | 特点 | 落叶树 | 常绿树 | | ---- | ---- | ------- | | 叶子 | 宽而薄 | 针状或厚 | | 是否落叶 | 每年一次 | 不同时全部脱落 | | 冬天外观 | 光秃 | 四季常绿 | | 适应环境 | 四季分明 | 寒冷或干燥 |

      6) 地理分布

      • 四季分明的温带地区
      • 冬冷夏暖
      • 北美东部、欧洲、东亚常见

      7) 拓展用法

      Deciduous 在生物学中也可表示“会脱落的”：

      • 乳牙（deciduous teeth）
      • 鹿角（每年脱落）

      一句话考试版总结

      Deciduous plants lose their leaves once each year to survive cold or dry seasons. 落叶植物通过季节性落叶来适应寒冷或干燥环境。

      如果你愿意，我可以把 deciduous vs evergreen 做成 Science 10 中英对照速记卡 / 对比表 / HTML 互动闪卡，方便你系统复习。

    24. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      limbs

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — limbs (thorough explanation)

      1) What “limbs” means (core idea)

      Limbs are movable body parts that extend from the main body of an animal. They are mainly used for movement, support, and interaction with the environment.

      In humans, the limbs are:

      • Arms (upper limbs)
      • Legs (lower limbs)

      Limbs = body extensions used for movement and function

      2) Main functions of limbs

      Limbs can have different roles depending on the organism:

      • Movement: walking, running, swimming, flying
      • Support: holding up body weight
      • Manipulation: grasping, holding, using tools (hands)
      • Feeding: catching or handling food
      • Defense: claws, kicks, strikes

      3) Types of limbs (with examples)

      1) Upper limbs (forelimbs)

      • Humans: arms (hands, fingers)
      • Animals: front legs, wings (birds), flippers (whales)

      2) Lower limbs (hindlimbs)

      • Humans: legs (feet, toes)
      • Animals: back legs (frogs, horses)

      3) Modified limbs Limbs can evolve to serve special purposes:

      • Wings → flying (birds, bats)
      • Flippers → swimming (seals, dolphins)
      • Claws → catching prey
      • Hooves → fast running

      4) Limbs in vertebrates (Science 10 focus)

      Most vertebrates share a similar limb bone structure, even if the limbs look different.

      Common bones include:

      • One upper bone (e.g., humerus)
      • Two lower bones (e.g., radius & ulna)
      • Wrist/ankle bones
      • Fingers or toes

      This similarity shows common ancestry and is evidence of evolution.

      5) Limbs vs appendages (quick clarification)

      • Limbs: arms, legs, wings, flippers (main movement parts)
      • Appendages: a broader term that can include antennae, tails, etc.

      All limbs are appendages, but not all appendages are limbs.

      中文 — limbs（四肢 / 肢体） 详细解释

      1) “limbs”的基本含义

      Limbs（肢体、四肢）是指从动物身体主干伸出的、可以活动的部分。

      在人类中：

      • 上肢：手臂
      • 下肢：腿

      Limbs = 用来运动和操作的身体部分

      2) 肢体的主要功能

      不同动物的肢体功能不同，包括：

      • 运动：行走、奔跑、游泳、飞行
      • 支撑：支撑身体重量
      • 操作：抓握、使用工具
      • 进食：抓取食物
      • 防御：攻击或保护自己

      3) 肢体的类型

      1) 前肢（上肢）

      • 人类：手臂
      • 动物：前腿、翅膀、鳍状肢

      2) 后肢（下肢）

      • 人类：腿
      • 动物：后腿

      3) 变态肢体（特殊功能）

      • 翅膀：飞行
      • 鳍肢：游泳
      • 爪：捕食
      • 蹄：快速奔跑

      4) 生物学重点（考试常考）

      许多脊椎动物的肢体内部结构相似，即使外形不同。 这说明它们有共同祖先，是进化的证据。

      一句话记忆

      Limbs are movable body parts used for movement and interaction. 肢体是用于运动和与环境互动的可活动身体部位。

      如果你需要，我可以把 limbs / joints / muscles / bones 做成 Science 10 中英对照速记卡或互动闪卡，非常适合考试复习。

    25. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      ingest

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — ingest (thorough explanation)

      1) What “ingest” means (core idea)

      Ingest means to take food or another substance into the body, usually through the mouth.

      In biology, it is the first step of nutrition.

      Ingest = take in (eat or swallow)

      2) Ingest vs digest vs absorb (very important distinction)

      These words are often confused, but they mean different steps:

      1. Ingest → taking food into the body
      2. Digest → breaking food down into smaller molecules
      3. Absorb → moving nutrients into the bloodstream or cells

      📌 Example:

      • You ingest an apple
      • Your stomach and intestines digest it
      • Your intestines absorb the nutrients

      3) How ingestion happens in animals

      • Humans & animals: ingest food through the mouth
      • Teeth, tongue, and saliva help prepare food for digestion
      • Food then moves to the stomach and intestines

      4) Ingest in simple organisms

      Some organisms do not have a mouth like humans:

      • Amoeba ingests food by engulfing it

      • This process is called phagocytosis

      • The food is trapped inside a food vacuole

      5) Ingest in food chains (Science 10 focus)

      • Herbivores ingest plants
      • Carnivores ingest animals
      • Omnivores ingest both plants and animals

      Energy flows through ecosystems because organisms ingest other organisms.

      6) “Ingest” in non-biological use

      • Humans can ingest medicine, water, or chemicals
      • In computing, “ingest data” means taking data into a system

      中文 — ingest（摄入 / 吃进） 详细解释

      1) “ingest”的基本意思

      Ingest 指的是 把食物或物质摄入体内，通常是通过口腔。

      在生物学中，它是营养过程的第一步。

      Ingest = 吃进 / 摄入

      2) ingest、digest、absorb 的区别（重点）

      这三个词代表不同阶段：

      1. Ingest（摄入）：把食物吃进体内
      2. Digest（消化）：把食物分解成小分子
      3. Absorb（吸收）：把营养吸收到血液或细胞中

      📌 例子：

      • 吃苹果 → ingest
      • 胃和肠分解苹果 → digest
      • 营养进入血液 → absorb

      3) 动物如何摄入食物

      • 人类和大多数动物通过嘴巴摄入食物
      • 牙齿和舌头帮助咀嚼
      • 食物进入消化系统继续处理

      4) 单细胞生物中的 ingest

      一些简单生物（如变形虫）：

      • 没有真正的嘴
      • 通过包围食物的方式摄入
      • 形成食物泡

      5) 食物链中的 ingest（考试常考）

      • 草食动物摄入植物
      • 肉食动物摄入其他动物
      • 杂食动物两者都摄入

      能量通过“摄入”在生态系统中传递。

      一句话记忆

      Ingest = take food into the body Ingest = 把食物吃进体内

      如果你愿意，我可以把 ingest / digest / absorb 做成 中英对照表或 Science 10 闪卡，非常适合考试快速区分。

    26. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026
      photosynthesis

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — Photosynthesis (thorough explanation)

      1) What photosynthesis is (core idea)

      Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria use light energy to make food (glucose) from carbon dioxide and water.

      In simple terms:

      Photosynthesis = using sunlight to make sugar

      This process is the foundation of almost all life on Earth, because it produces:

      • Food (chemical energy)
      • Oxygen for respiration

      2) The word itself (helpful for exams)

      • Photo = light
      • Synthesis = putting together

      So photosynthesis literally means:

      “Putting things together using light.”

      3) The photosynthesis equation (must-know)

      [ 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + \text{light energy} \rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 ]

      Left side (inputs):

      • Carbon dioxide (from air)
      • Water (from roots)
      • Light energy (from the Sun)

      Right side (outputs):

      • Glucose (food for the plant)
      • Oxygen (released into the air)

      4) Where photosynthesis happens

      Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts, which are found mainly in leaf cells.

      Inside a chloroplast:

      • Thylakoids → where light reactions happen
      • Stroma → where sugar is made

      Chlorophyll, the green pigment in chloroplasts, absorbs sunlight.

      5) Two main stages of photosynthesis

      Stage 1: Light-dependent reactions

      Location: Thylakoid membranes Needs light: ✅ Yes

      What happens:

      • Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll

      • Water is split into:

      • Oxygen (released)

      • Hydrogen (used later)
      • Energy carriers (ATP and NADPH) are produced

      Key idea: 👉 This stage captures energy from sunlight

      Stage 2: Calvin Cycle (light-independent reactions)

      Location: Stroma Needs light directly: ❌ No (but depends on Stage 1)

      What happens:

      • Carbon dioxide is taken from the air
      • Energy from Stage 1 is used
      • Glucose (sugar) is produced

      Key idea: 👉 This stage builds sugar

      6) Why photosynthesis is so important

      Photosynthesis:

      • Provides food for plants (and all food chains)
      • Produces oxygen for animals and humans
      • Removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
      • Stores sunlight as chemical energy

      Without photosynthesis:

      ❌ No plants → ❌ no animals → ❌ no humans

      7) Factors that affect photosynthesis (exam favorite)

      • Light intensity (more light → faster rate, up to a limit)
      • Carbon dioxide concentration
      • Temperature (enzymes work best in a certain range)
      • Water availability

      中文 — 光合作用（Photosynthesis） 详细解释

      1) 什么是光合作用（核心概念）

      光合作用是指绿色植物、藻类和某些细菌利用光能，把二氧化碳和水合成葡萄糖的过程。

      一句话记忆：

      光合作用 = 用阳光制造食物

      光合作用不仅制造食物，还产生氧气，是地球生命的基础。

      2) 光合作用这个词怎么理解

      • Photo（光）
      • Synthesis（合成）

      意思是：

      利用光把物质合成在一起

      3) 光合作用总反应式（必考）

      [ 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + 光能 \rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 ]

      原料（左边）：

      • 二氧化碳（来自空气）
      • 水（来自根）
      • 光能（来自太阳）

      产物（右边）：

      • 葡萄糖（植物的食物）
      • 氧气（释放到空气中）

      4) 光合作用发生在哪里

      光合作用发生在叶绿体中，主要位于叶片细胞。

      叶绿体内部：

      • 类囊体：进行光反应
      • 基质：制造葡萄糖

      叶绿素负责吸收光能，因此植物呈绿色。

      5) 光合作用的两个阶段

      第一阶段：光反应

      位置： 类囊体膜 是否需要光： ✅ 需要

      过程：

      • 叶绿素吸收光能
      • 水被分解
      • 释放氧气
      • 产生能量物质（ATP、NADPH）

      👉 作用：收集并储存光能

      第二阶段：暗反应（卡尔文循环）

      位置： 叶绿体基质 是否直接需要光： ❌ 不需要

      过程：

      • 利用二氧化碳
      • 使用第一阶段提供的能量
      • 合成葡萄糖

      👉 作用：制造糖类

      6) 为什么光合作用如此重要

      光合作用：

      • 为植物制造食物
      • 是所有食物链的起点
      • 产生氧气供人类和动物呼吸
      • 减少空气中的二氧化碳

      没有光合作用：

      ❌ 没有植物 → ❌ 没有动物 → ❌ 没有人类

      7) 影响光合作用速率的因素（常考）

      • 光照强度
      • 二氧化碳浓度
      • 温度
      • 水分供应

      一句话考试版总结

      Photosynthesis uses light energy to convert CO₂ and water into glucose and oxygen. 光合作用利用光能把二氧化碳和水转化为葡萄糖和氧气。

      如果你需要，我可以把这部分整理成 Science 10 考试速记卡 / 中英对照表 / HTML 互动闪卡，直接接进你现在的学习系统。

    27. cghuisunshine 06 Jan 2026

      Image

      Image

      Image

      Image

      English — “stem” (thorough explanation)

      1) What “stem” means (core idea)

      A stem is the main supporting structure of a plant, usually growing above the ground. It connects the roots to the leaves, flowers, and fruits.

      In simple terms, the stem is the plant’s support pole + transport highway.

      2) Main functions of a stem

      A) Support

      • Holds leaves up toward sunlight
      • Supports flowers and fruits
      • Keeps the plant upright

      B) Transport (vascular function) Inside most stems are transport tissues:

      • Xylem → carries water and minerals from roots to leaves
      • Phloem → carries sugars (food) made in leaves to the rest of the plant

      This allows all parts of the plant to survive and grow.

      C) Storage Some stems store food or water:

      • Potato (a stem tuber) stores starch
      • Cactus stems store water in dry environments

      D) Growth

      • Stems grow longer from the tip (apical meristem)
      • Buds on the stem can develop into branches, leaves, or flowers

      3) Types of stems

      1) Herbaceous stems

      • Soft, green, flexible
      • Example: grasses, sunflowers

      2) Woody stems

      • Hard, thick, brown
      • Example: trees and shrubs
      • Provide long-term strength and height

      3) Modified stems Stems that are adapted for special jobs:

      • Rhizome (horizontal underground stem): ginger
      • Tuber (swollen storage stem): potato
      • Runner / stolon (horizontal above ground): strawberry
      • Bulb (short stem with thick leaves): onion
      • Cladode (photosynthetic stem): cactus

      4) How to tell a stem from a root

      A stem has:

      • Nodes (where leaves or buds grow)
      • Internodes (space between nodes)
      • Buds (“eyes” on a potato)

      A root:

      • Has root hairs
      • Has no nodes or buds

      中文 — “stem（茎）” 详细解释

      1) “茎”的基本含义

      茎（stem）是植物的主要支撑结构，通常位于地上。它把根与叶、花和果实连接起来。

      可以把茎理解为植物的 “骨架 + 运输通道”。

      2) 茎的主要功能

      A) 支撑作用

      • 支撑叶子，使其更好接受阳光
      • 支撑花和果实
      • 使植物保持直立

      B) 运输作用（维管组织） 茎内部有两种重要的运输组织：

      • 木质部（xylem）：将水和无机盐从根向上运输
      • 韧皮部（phloem）：将叶子制造的糖类运输到植物各部分

      C) 储存作用 有些茎用于储存营养或水分：

      • 土豆（块茎）储存淀粉
      • 仙人掌的茎储存水分

      D) 生长作用

      • 茎的顶端有分生组织，使植物不断长高
      • 芽可以发育成新的枝、叶或花

      3) 茎的类型

      1) 草本茎

      • 柔软、绿色
      • 例：草类、向日葵

      2) 木本茎

      • 坚硬、粗壮
      • 例：树木、灌木

      3) 变态茎（特殊功能的茎）

      • 根状茎：姜
      • 块茎：土豆
      • 匍匐茎：草莓
      • 鳞茎：洋葱
      • 叶状茎：仙人掌

      4) 重点一句话记忆

      茎的作用 = 支撑 + 运输 + 生长 +（有时）储存

      如果你愿意，我可以把 stem 做成 Science 10 考试版速记卡 / 中英对照表 / HTML 互动闪卡，非常适合你现在的生物学习体系。

    Visit annotations in context

    Annotators

    URL

    cghuisunshine.github.io/Science/BC_Science_Connections_10_split/03_Topic_1.1_PDF_decrypted.pdf
  10. social-media-ethics-automation.github.io social-media-ethics-automation.github.io
    1.2. Kumail Nanjiani’s Reflections on Ethics in Tech — Social Media, Ethics, and Automation
    1
    1. skylertn 06 Jan 2026
      What do you think is the responsibility of tech workers to think through the ethical implications of what they are making? Why do you think the people who Kumail talked with didn’t have answers to his questions?

      Once we're in a certain headspace (especially if it's related to something we're really excited about), we can overlook even the simplest things. However, it should be our responsibility to seek outside perspectives and test other reactions to our inventions/creations in order to gain new perspectives and make sure that our products are ready for introduction. I think this might have been the issue that occurred when the people Kumail talked with didn't have answers to his questions. They didn't think to seek feedback on their new products which led to a narrow concept.

    Visit annotations in context

    Annotators

    URL

    social-media-ethics-automation.github.io/book_v0/ch01_intro/02_kumail.html
  11. biz.libretexts.org biz.libretexts.org
    1.2: What Is Finance?
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Annotators

    URL

    biz.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Finance/Principles_of_Finance_(OpenStax)/01:_Introduction_to_Finance/1.02:_What_Is_Finance
  12. pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca
    Chapter 3
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Annotators

    URL

    pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca/thebelljar/chapter/3/
  13. gemini.google.com gemini.google.com
    ‎Gemini - 轻松对话，获取创意灵感
    1
    1. lishiyu 06 Jan 2026
      ：将相关度设为 0.8 以上，这样只有“非常像”的笔记才会跳出来，减少“菜谱干扰财务报表”的低级错误。

      有没有好的案例？

    Visit annotations in context

    Annotators

    URL

    gemini.google.com/
  14. pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca
    Chapter 2
    2
    1. miriam.b80 06 Jan 2026
      I couldn’t understand how she came to know Doreen or why she should want to help Doreen wake me up instead of leading her quietly back to her own room.

      she just can't understand a service worker doing their job. class indicator

    2. miriam.b80 06 Jan 2026
      I had the impression it wasn’t night and it wasn’t day, but some lurid third interval that had suddenly slipped between them and would never end.

      this is always how it feels after you nap

    Visit annotations in context

    Annotators

    URL

    pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca/thebelljar/chapter/2/
  15. en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org
    Douglas Engelbart - Wikipedia
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Annotators

    URL

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Engelbart
  16. social-media-ethics-automation.github.io social-media-ethics-automation.github.io
    2.1.2. Social Media Platform Examples — Social Media, Ethics, and Automation
    1
    1. ejbech 06 Jan 2026
      There are many other varieties of social media sites, though hopefully we have at least covered a decent range of them.

      I found the discussion of blurred boundaries between public and private particularly compelling. The text highlights how users may experience social media as an intimate or personal space, while the platform simultaneously functions as a public arena with broader visibility and consequences. This tension helps explain why ethical norms on social media are often unclear or contested, since users may not share the same assumptions about what kind of space they are participating in.

    Visit annotations in context

    Annotators

    URL

    social-media-ethics-automation.github.io/book_v0/ch02_definitions/01_social_media/02_social_media_examples.html
  17. social-media-ethics-automation.github.io social-media-ethics-automation.github.io
    2.2.3. Ethics Frameworks — Social Media, Ethics, and Automation
    1
    1. ejbech 06 Jan 2026
      More on Ethics

      One ethical framework that could be added here is care ethics, which focuses on relationships, vulnerability, and responsibility rather than abstract rules or aggregate outcomes. In the context of social media automation, care ethics would draw attention to how bots affect trust, emotional labor, and users’ sense of being in a social space with other humans. This perspective could be especially relevant for platforms like Bluesky, where social interaction and community norms play an important role, and where even seemingly harmless automation might undermine relational trust.

    Visit annotations in context

    Annotators

    URL

    social-media-ethics-automation.github.io/book_v0/ch02_definitions/02_ethics/03_ethics_frameworks.html
  18. kms.fineres.com kms.fineres.com
    Fine+大运维规划2026 - 1.1 Fine+ - 知识管理
    2
    1. yaohwu 06 Jan 2026
      服务/组件断联、告警通知、恢复处理（合并代维）

      功能不可用的原因弄清楚。 最近在看巡检，项目重启后，在一定的时间周期内，部分运维功能不可用，没有一个明确的原因，就只说不可用，很差

    2. yaohwu 06 Jan 2026
      组件安全问题修复

      部分关键问题还在观察，实际风险是很大的，如果像去年那样，直接定一个 70%，很被动

    Visit annotations in context

    Annotators

    URL

    kms.fineres.com/pages/viewpage.action
  19. www.youtube.com www.youtube.com
    1968 “Mother of All Demos” by SRI’s Doug Engelbart and Team
    1
    1. learnwithying 06 Jan 2026
      60 years ago he presented all the tech that is essential to our lives today

      Douglas Engelbart demonstrates revolutionary computing tools in 1968, showcasing concepts like graphical interfaces, video conferencing, hypertext, networked collaboration, and the mouse. Presented from Stanford Research Institute, the demo exemplifies Engelbart’s vision of augmenting human intellect using technology.

    Visit annotations in context

    Annotators

    URL

    youtube.com/watch
  20. www.medsci.org www.medsci.org
    Deletion of the Mouse Homolog of Human FHR1 (muFHR1) Alleviates Atherosclerosis in ApoE-/- mice
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    medsci.org/v23p0585.htm
  21. rupress.org rupress.org
    Viral infection and brain inflammation with seizures in PARK7 deficiency
    5
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    rupress.org/jhi/article/2/2/e20250044/278754/Viral-infection-and-brain-inflammation-with
  22. www.biorxiv.org www.biorxiv.org
    Parallel ZNF598 and GIGYF2 pathways mediate conserved collision-dependent mRNA decay with distinct endonucleolytic features
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    biorxiv.org/content/10.64898/2026.01.01.697312v1
  23. www.biorxiv.org www.biorxiv.org
    Altered Cohesin Dynamics During Cellular Differentiation
    4
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    biorxiv.org/content/10.64898/2026.01.01.697310v1
  24. 54.241.53.176 54.241.53.176
    2026.01.01.697161v1.full-html.html
    8
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    54.241.53.176/ffadff401656d9d116040b3f55c1d0047a810d2e/2026.01.01.697161v1.full-html.html
  25. www.biorxiv.org www.biorxiv.org
    System-wide profiling reveals metabolic alterations in a G2019S LRRK2 knockin mouse model of Parkinson’s disease: systemic depletion of pyrimidine nucleosides
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    biorxiv.org/content/10.64898/2025.12.31.697225v1
  26. www.biorxiv.org www.biorxiv.org
    Frizzled 6 Drives EMT and Stromal Remodeling Downstream of SP1 in Basal-like Pancreatic Cancer
    2
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    biorxiv.org/content/10.64898/2025.12.31.697213v1
  27. www.biorxiv.org www.biorxiv.org
    Acute deletion of PLIN5 in brown adipocytes causes mitochondrial dysfunction and cold intolerance
    2
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    biorxiv.org/content/10.64898/2025.12.31.697198v1
  28. www.mdpi.com www.mdpi.com
    Topical Delivery of Autochthonous Lactic Acid Bacteria Using Calcium Alginate Microspheres as a Probiotic Carrier System with Enhanced Therapeutic Potential
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    mdpi.com/1424-8247/19/1/66
  29. www.mdpi.com www.mdpi.com
    A Novel Quinolone JH62 (E-2-(Tridec-4-en-1-yl)-quinolin-4(1H)-one) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa Exhibits Potent Anticancer Activity
    13
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    mdpi.com/2076-2607/14/1/78
  30. www.mdpi.com www.mdpi.com
    Nanotherapy Targeting miR-10b Improves Survival in Orthotopic Glioblastoma Models
    11
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    mdpi.com/2079-4983/17/1/15
  31. www.mdpi.com www.mdpi.com
    Transmission of Non-Constitutive Proteasomes Between Cells via Extracellular Vesicles
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    mdpi.com/1422-0067/27/1/466
  32. www.mdpi.com www.mdpi.com
    Calcium and Cadmium Activate ESRRB to Mediate Cell Stemness and Pluripotency
    9
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    mdpi.com/1422-0067/27/1/231
  33. www.mdpi.com www.mdpi.com
    REV1 Loss Triggers a G2/M Cell-Cycle Arrest Through Dysregulation of Mitotic Regulators
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    mdpi.com/2073-4425/17/1/44
  34. www.mdpi.com www.mdpi.com
    Machine Learning for Assessing Vital Signs in Humans in Smart Cities Based on a Multi-Agent System
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    mdpi.com/1999-5903/18/1/27
  35. www.mdpi.com www.mdpi.com
    Leveraging Large-Scale Public Data for Artificial Intelligence-Driven Chest X-Ray Analysis and Diagnosis
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    mdpi.com/2075-4418/16/1/146
  36. www.mdpi.com www.mdpi.com
    Apple Seed Extract in Cancer Treatment: Assessing Its Effects on Liver Damage and Recovery
    2
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    mdpi.com/1467-3045/48/1/55
  37. www.mdpi.com www.mdpi.com
    Integrative Multimodal Profiling of TAp73 and DNp73 Reveals Isoform-Specific Transcriptomic Coregulator Landscapes in Cancer Programs
    4
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    mdpi.com/2218-273x/16/1/63
  38. www.mdpi.com www.mdpi.com
    Inhibition of TRPC3-Nox2 Complex Formation Ameliorates Skeletal Muscle Atrophy
    5
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    mdpi.com/2076-3921/15/1/38
  39. www.mdpi.com www.mdpi.com
    Small Non-Coding RNAs in the Regulatory Network of Wheat Dwarf Virus-Infected Wheat
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    mdpi.com/2077-0472/16/1/67
  40. 54.241.53.176 54.241.53.176
    10.22074_cellj.2025.2055578.1813-html.html
    2
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    54.241.53.176/65ae17ec75709454f92ea25504237b662727a0b6/10.22074_cellj.2025.2055578.1813-html.html
  41. www.liebertpub.com www.liebertpub.com
    Fibroblast Matrix Enhanced Three-Dimensional-Bioprinted Hydrogel for Osteochondral Regeneration
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1177/19373341251405183
  42. pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
    Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles (BEVs) Derived From Lactococcus lactis as Multimodal Drug Delivery Platforms
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12755118/
  43. journals.asm.org journals.asm.org
    Synergistic effects of Clostridium butyricum and Akkermansia muciniphila-derived postbiotics ameliorate DSS-induced colitis and associated tumorigenesis through immunomodulation and microbiota regulation in mice
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/msystems.00689-25
  44. www.science.org www.science.org
    Autologous human iPSC–derived alveolus-on-chip reveals early pathological events of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aea9874
  45. www.science.org www.science.org
    Phenotypic discovery and therapeutic evaluation of an ITGA3B1-targeting antibody-drug conjugate for bladder cancer
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ady0041
  46. www.science.org www.science.org
    Synergistic intragenic epigenetic deregulation by IDH2 and SRSF2 mutations causes mis-splicing of key transcriptional regulators
    3
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu8292
  47. bpspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com bpspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com
    BPS Publications
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    bpspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/bph.70323
  48. pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
    Pathogenic Gαo Mutants Drive Dominant GPCR Coupling in GNAO1 Encephalopathies
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12746902/
  49. pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
    Effects of Defined Pig Microbiota on Acute Salmonellosis in Gnotobiotic Piglets
    2
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12755190/
  50. pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
    LncRNA DANCR Activates p38/mTOR‐Mediated Autophagy via ANXA2 to Exacerbate Oxygen‐Induced Retinal Neovascularization in Mice
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12741788/
  51. rupress.org rupress.org
    FOXO1 re-expression with a dual-recombinase allele rescues class switching in germinal center B cells
    3
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    rupress.org/jem/article/223/3/e20241136/278752/FOXO1-re-expression-with-a-dual-recombinase-allele
  52. rupress.org rupress.org
    Drosophila Abi maintains blood cell homeostasis by promoting clathrin-mediated endocytosis of Notch
    10
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    rupress.org/jcb/article/225/3/e202505091/278760/Drosophila-Abi-maintains-blood-cell-homeostasis-by
  53. www.nature.com www.nature.com
    Single-cell perturbations decipher ribosomal stress-surveillance regulators in type 2 diabetes
    2
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    nature.com/articles/s42255-025-01407-6
  54. www.nature.com www.nature.com
    T follicular helper cells transiently unlock a plasticity state in germinal centre B cells during the humoral immune response
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    nature.com/articles/s41556-025-01833-4
  55. www.nature.com www.nature.com
    PDZRN4 suppresses lung adenocarcinoma progression via inhibiting ubiquitin-mediated HIF-1A degradation
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    nature.com/articles/s41388-025-03670-z
  56. www.nature.com www.nature.com
    SLC6A14-mediated glutamine promotes SYTL4–CXCL8 axis activation to drive gemcitabine resistance and immune evasion in pancreatic cancer
    1
    Visit annotations in context

    Tags

    Annotators

    URL

    nature.com/articles/s12276-025-01596-w